Midterm Exam (4)

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Short answer question 1. Define Sutherland’s concept of “differential association”, describe its relevance to understanding criminal behaviour, and describe 3 propositions that form part of this concept. Sutherland's concept of differential association explains that individuals acquire criminal behaviour through social interactions and associations. (Rochelle, 2023, slide 19) Sutherland introduced this idea to understand the process by which individuals learn deviant and criminal behaviour from others in a social environment. The relevance to understanding criminal behaviour is that criminal behaviour is learned through social interactions and associations with others. It challenges the idea that criminal behaviour is a result of individual characteristics or biological factors. Instead, it shows the role of socialisation and the influence of others. For example, family, peers, and social groups which in turn can shape an individual's criminal tendencies. One proposition Sutherland explained was that criminal behaviour is learned, he explained that people learn criminal techniques from motives, drives, rationalisations, and attitudes from others through communication and interaction. (Rochelle, 2023, slide 20) Another proposition is that criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with others. (Rochelle, 2023, slide 20) The learning of criminal behaviour can occur within intimate personal groups. Family, friends, and peers play a role in making values, norms, and behaviours people relate to criminal activity. The last proposition that Sutherland explained was the principal part of the learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal groups. (Rochelle, 2023, slide 20) Sutherland explained that criminal behaviour is learned primarily through interactions with close people, such as family, friends, and associates. 2. Define Durkheim’s concepts of anomie (what it is, how it arises) and social solidarity (2 forms). Explain the relevance of anomie and social solidarity to each other and to understanding crime. Anomie is a state of normlessness or a breakdown in the social order. It starts when there is a disconnection between the social goals and the means available to achieve those goals within a society. (Rochelle, 2023, slide 25) Durkheim explains that this arises during periods of social change, such as industrialization or economic problems, where traditional values struggle to keep pace with the evolving social structure. (Durkheim, Week 6 p. 37) In such situations, individuals may experience a sense of moral confusion and a weakening of social bonds. Social solitary means that when there's strong social solidarity, it means people share common beliefs and values, and they support each other. (Durkheim, Week 6 p. 20 - 21) If social solidarity is weak, it might mean people feel disconnected, and there's less support and cooperation. (Durkheim, Week 6 p. 36) So, social solidarity measures how strong the social bonds are that keep individuals united in a society. There are two forms of social solidarity, mechanical solidarity where everyone thinks alike, shares similar values, and engages in similar activities. (Durkheim, Week 6 p. 24) A village where people have the same beliefs, traditions, and ways of life. Because everyone is so similar, there's a strong feeling of unity among them. This kind of solidarity is typical of old-fashioned, simple societies where people are closely connected through their shared customs and beliefs. Organic Solidarity is when social cohesion is based on interdependence. (Durkheim, Week 6 p. 25) Individuals are connected through their complementary roles and functions in the

division of labour. Unlike mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity arises from the diversity of individuals and their specialised functions. (Durkheim, Week 6 p. 29) The relevance of understanding crime is that the strain caused by anomie, where societal goals seem unattainable through legitimate means, can motivate individuals to pursue criminal paths as alternative routes to success. (Durkheim, Week 6 p. 30) The relevance of social solidity for crime is that when individuals are well-integrated into a community and there is sufficient regulation of their behaviour, the incidence of crime tends to be lower. 3. Describe Beccaria’s contributions to understanding crime and administering punishment. Why does he believe crime occurs, and how should it best be dealt with? Explain how Beccaria’s ideas are reflected in the principles of our modern-day criminal justice system, using two specific examples. Beccaria believed that the primary cause of crime is the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. (Beccaria, Week 2, p. 10) He argued that individuals weigh the potential benefits and risks before engaging in criminal behaviour. (Beccaria, Week 2, p. 10) Beccaria explained the importance of deterrence, explaining that the certainty, severity, and swiftness of punishment are crucial in preventing crime. He believed that individuals would be dissuaded from committing crimes if the punishment was swift, certain, and proportionate. (Beccaria, Week 2, p. 11) One modern reflection includes deterrence in sentencing. Beccaria shows that deterrence is reflected in modern sentencing practices. The criminal justice system often aims to create sentences that deter both the individual offender and others in society. For example, mandatory minimum sentences for certain crimes are intended to send a clear message about the consequences of engaging in illegal activities. The second modern reflection is rehabilitation and reformation. Beccaria's focus on the purpose of punishment aligns with modern efforts to rehabilitate offenders. Many modern criminal justice systems incorporate rehabilitation programs, aiming to address the root causes of criminal behaviour and reintegrate offenders into society as law-abiding citizens. 4. Identify and explain Merton’s modes of adapting to strain. Describe whether and how each mode of adaptation leads or does not lead to crime, using specific examples. Merton explains that societal structures and cultural expectations can create strain or pressure that may lead individuals to engage in criminal behaviour. (Rochelle, 2023, slide 5) Merton identified five modes of adaptation to strain. (Rochelle, 2023, slide 7) Conformity typically does not lead to crime. Individuals in this mode are law-abiding and seek success within the established system. For example, someone who follows the educational system works hard, and pursues a career is conforming to societal expectations. Innovation may lead to criminal behaviour. (Cohen, week 8, p. 186) For instance, in the Cohen reading, Merton explains that individuals might not achieve goals through the channel of the middle class, so they adapt to their goal blockage by using alternative routes. (Cohen, week 8, p. 186) Ritualism usually does not lead to serious crime. Individuals in this mode may engage in minor rule violations, but their adherence to societal norms prevents more serious criminal behaviour. Retreatism can lead to criminal behaviour, especially if individuals turn to illegal activities to support their alternative lifestyle. For example, individuals involved in drug addiction may resort to theft or drug-related crimes. Rebellion can lead to criminal acts if the alternative goals involve illegal activities. (Cohen, week 8, p. 186) For instance, the Cohen

reading describes that the lower class can set up a status system that values what the middle class rejects. (Cohen, week 8, p. 186) Long Answer Question 1. Compare and contrast Rational Choice and Routine Activity Theories. What does each theory say about offenders and how and why crime occurs? How do they differ and how do they overlap? What are their strengths and weaknesses? What kinds of policies flow from each (provide at least one specific example for each)? Which theory do you believe offers policies that adequately address the “problem of crime”, and why? According to the rational choice theory, people consider the advantages and disadvantages of committing crimes before deciding to act criminally. Criminals are thought to be rational individuals who weigh the benefits and drawbacks of their actions before committing them. According to the theory, crime happens when perceived benefits, like the possibility of punishment, outweigh perceived costs. The three primary components of Routine Activity Theory, on the other hand, are an appropriate target, a motivated offender, and the lack of a capable guardian. Routine Activity Theory does not place as much emphasis on the rational decision-making process of offenders as Rational Choice Theory does. Instead, it concentrates more on the combination of everyday activities that give individuals criminal opportunities. Though their main areas of emphasis are different, both theories concur on how important it is to understand crime. The rational evaluation of costs and benefits and individual decision-making are the main priorities of rational choice theory. Routine Activity Theory, on the other hand, places less emphasis on the rationality of offender decisions and more emphasis on the merging of routine activities that provide opportunities for crime. Given that both theories demonstrate the importance of situational factors and the role that opportunity plays in the commission of crime, there is some overlap between them. They reject the idea that personal path is the only factor contributing to crime and highlight the importance of understanding the current setting in which criminal acts take place. The specifics of the current crime problem will determine which of these two theories is best for developing policy. The rational choice theory may be more appropriate for crimes requiring careful planning and weighing benefits and risks. Routine Activity Theory, on the other hand, might provide more practical legislative responses for crimes that are more advantageous and specific to a situation. In the end, combining the two viewpoints might provide a more thorough strategy for dealing with the difficult "problem of crime." In conclusion, while Rational Choice Theory and Routine Activity Theory have strengths and weaknesses, integrating elements from both theories may provide a more nuanced understanding of crime. Policies derived from these theories can inform crime prevention strategies, with Rational Choice Theory influencing measures that alter the calculus of costs and benefits and Routine Activity Theory guiding efforts to modify environmental conditions that facilitate crime. 2. Compare and contrast Strain Theory (as developed by Merton) and Social Bond Theory (as developed by Hirschi). What does each theory say about offenders and how and why crime occurs? How and why do they differ in their understandings/main premises? What are their strengths and weaknesses? What kinds of policies flow from each (provide at least

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one specific example for each)? Which theory do you believe offers policies that adequately address the “problem of crime”, and why? According to Merton's Strain Theory, when there is a difference between societal goals and the legal means by which those goals can be attained, people may resort to criminal behaviour. When people are unable to succeed through legal means, they experience strain and may resort to illegal activity as one of their adjustments. Policies grounded in the theory of strain tend to try to address the factors that give rise to this strain, offering people different ways to accomplish societal objectives. For example, it can be beneficial to put social and economic policies into place that lessen inequality and improve access to chances for employment and education. Hirschi's Social Bond Theory, on the other hand, focuses on the social ties that bind people to traditional society. Hirschi contends that people who have strong social ties are dedicated to conventional goals, engaged in lawful activities, and who believe that social norms are legitimate, are less likely to commit crimes. To reduce crime, policies influenced by the social bond theory frequently emphasise fostering social ties and connections. After-school programs, community service projects, and youth mentoring programs are a few examples of methods meant to strengthen ties between family and community while lowering the risk of criminal behaviour. Although the relationship between social factors and criminal behaviour is addressed by both theories, their concepts are different. While Social Bond Theory demonstrates the significance of personal attachments and ties to traditional society, Strain Theory emphasises the influence of societal expectations and structural disparities on criminal behaviour. Both theories, however, agree that social factors play a major role in shaping criminal behaviour; Social Bond Theory emphasises positive social connections, while Strain Theory concentrates on societal pressures. Which of these theories should be used to develop policy will depend on the particular crime issue at hand. While Social Bond Theory offers more practical solutions for preventing crime through the promotion of positive social bonds and connections, Strain Theory may be more suitable for addressing societal inequalities and providing opportunities. Combining components from both viewpoints might offer a strategy for handling the "problem of crime"

References Rochelle, S. (2023, November 7). The Chicago School [Powerpoint slides]. eClass. York University. https://eclass.yorku.ca Rochelle, S. (2023, October 17). Durkheim on Crime and Punishment [Powerpoint slides]. eClass. York University. https://eclass.yorku.ca Durkheim, E. (Week 6, Reading 3). The Division of Labor in Society. https://eclass.yorku.ca/mod/resource/view.php?id=2508982 Beccaria, C (Week 2, Reading 1) On crimes and punishments. https://eclass.yorku.ca/mod/resource/view.php?id=2508905 Rochelle, S. (2023, October 24). Anomie and strain [Powerpoint slides]. eClass. York University. https://eclass.yorku.ca Cohen, A. (Week 8, Reading 6) Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang https://eclass.yorku.ca/mod/resource/view.php?id=2614160 Rochelle, S. (2023, November 14) Control theory [Powerpoint slides]. eClass. York University. https://eclass.yorku.ca Hirshi, T. (Week 10, Reading 9) Social bond theory. https://eclass.yorku.ca/mod/resource/view.php?id=2630366 Hirshi, T (Week 10, Reading 8) Chapter 1: Perspective on crime delinquency https://eclass.yorku.ca/mod/resource/view.php?id=2509265

Midterm Exam (4)

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