development theories

17 Early Childhood Education Journal (2023) 51:15–30 1 3 that has a foremost impact on early childhood education the- ory and practice. It affects the way that educational research- ers, policymakers, and practitioners recognize young chil- dren’s development and its implications for researching and educating them. They think that development is a biological progression that gradually emerges instinctively in inevita- ble, successive stages (Hunt, 1961 ). This viewpoint indicates that numerous practitioners believe that young children gain knowledge naturally and spontaneously throughout their development. Arnold Gessell’s research improved the pro- gress of the maturationist theory. The belief that genetic pre- determination controlled the child study domain and early childhood education throughout the first half of the twentieth century (Hunt, 1961 ). Most researchers and educators of that period thought that the children’s biological heritage basi- cally dominated the sequence of their development. Environ- mental influences were assumed to be minor. According to Gesell ( 1933 ), “No environment as such has the capacity … to generate the progressions of development” (p. 211). He discusses the function of maturation in the initial patterns of child behavior and the effects of heredity, environment, learning, growth and development. He proposes that the maturation theory assists, at best for some time, researchers with both their experimental studies and theoretical inter- pretations (Gesell, 1933 ). In the early twentieth century, G. Stanley Hall introduced developmentally appropriate practice, which was continued by Arnold Gesell and his supporters in the Maturationist school of child development (Gesell & Ilg, 1946 ), which inspired a fundamental concept of readiness. G. Stanley Hall’s Theories G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) finished his doctorate at Har- vard University where he studied with William James, who was considered the "Father of American psychology". Then he went to Germany to study with Wilhelm Wundt, the renowned pioneer of experimental psychology. After he returned to the United States, Hall used his knowledge of experimental psychology to conduct research on children's development and apply the developmental principles to education. Several psychologists think of him as a pioneer of "child-centered education” and he is perceived to be the father of the child study movement. Child Study Movement G. Stanley Hall contributed his personal approach to both psychology and education. Hall's research in child study indicated that development depends on genetics. He also established the fundamental technique of child study, which is based on observation. Since during this period, qualified child psychologists were unavailable in the United States, Hall recruited interested individuals to conduct the observa- tions for him. They were mainly parents and teachers who observed children in their natural environments instead of laboratories. Darwin inspired Hall's research work; there- fore, it was considered the theory of evolution. He thought that individuals in the human race progressed at a develop- mental sequence that was similar to the development of the species. He believed that children should be liberated from the primitive facets of evolution to be able to perform as mature contemporary human beings. This can be achieved through the normal activities of childhood. This basic development is frequently communicated in the expression, "ontology recapitulates phylogeny,” which refers to the evo- lutionary history of an individual, a society, or a group of societies. Hall's lasting influence was the emphasis on the scientific study of childhood. He gathered huge quantities of evidence about children in an effort to describe children at several periods of life. Hall's approaches, gathering survey data about children from teachers who were not skilled in obser- vation procedures, would be discounted as scientific nowa- days. Nevertheless, with these methods, he surpassed new fields in the enquiry of childhood and formed the founda- tion for further scientific research in childhood and also the use of child development principles to education. In several respects, Hall was thought to be the initiator of the "child- centered" method to education, the position that education should focus on the nature of childhood instead of making children follow traditional systems of education (Strickland & Burgess, 1965 ). G. Stanley Hall’s introduction to devel- opmentally appropriate practice was continued by Arnold Gesell and his supporters in the maturationist school of child development (Gesell & Ilg, 1946 ). Gesell’s Theories Arnold Lucius Gesell (1880–1961) continued Hall’s work on maturationist theory and brought modern research tech- niques to bear on its evolution. Gesell studied psychology with G. Stanley Hall at Clark University, Worcester, Mas- sachusetts. In 1906 Gesell received a doctorate from Clark University and in 1911 he was in charge of the Yale Psycho- Clinic (later known as the Clinic of Child Development) in New Haven. Since he believed that a medical preparation was critical for his child development research, he obtained a medical degree in 1915 from Yale University. Originally Gesell was interested in childhood abnormal- ity. He developed new approaches (such as using the movie camera as an observation tool) to observe and assess behav- ior in structured environments and incentives. He used a one-way mirror to film approximately 12,000 children of dif- ferent ages and developmental levels. He also collected the records of children whose ages ranged from birth to the late

20 Early Childhood Education Journal (2023) 51:15–30 1 3 Although for numerous years Piaget had conducted research on children, his initial studies and theories were not recognized in the United States or Britain. Conceivably they were viewed as contradicting the predominant matu- ration theory of development. Furthermore, child develop- ment and early childhood education researchers were hardly interested in young children's intellectual development. His theories began to be accepted in the 1960s in the United States, which may have been due to an increased concern about children who were experiencing academic success in schools. Piaget attributed cognitive development to devel- opmental stages, which appear to be somewhat widespread; while Vygotsky practiced another method which assigned importance to culture and social interactions for children’s development. Vygotsky's Theories Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896–1934) was also a con- structivist theorist in cognitive psychology. He was Piaget's contemporary. Initially, he was a literature teacher. Between 1915 until 1922, he concentrated on artistic creation (Vygot- sky, 1971 ), while later shifting to developmental psychology, education, and psychopathology. Vygotsky was born in Rus- sia before the Soviet revolution but died at a young age. His initial work was published during the 1930s, but the Soviet regime censored a great deal of his later work. Neverthe- less, most scholars are aware of his influential work. One of his foremost contributions to the field was Thought and Language (Vygotsky, 1934 /1962), which was translated and published in English in the 1960s. The majority of his other publications emerged in the 1970s and 1980s. Natural vs Cultural Development Vygotsky differentiated between two types of development: natural and cultural . Natural development was the effect of maturation, whereas cultural development was associ- ated with language and reasoning capability. Consequently, the individuals’ intellectual patterns are the results of the activities they experienced within the culture in where they were raised. Furthermore, progressive methods of thought (conceptual thinking) are transferred verbally to children; hence, language is an indispensable means in assessing the individuals’ aptitude in learning how to think. For Vygot- sky, thought and language were inextricably interrelated. If children are provided with enriched experiences for informal and formal education, then their use of language can become more sophisticated and reveal their level of conceptual think- ing. Conversely, when children’s language environments are limited to direct speech and the popular media, their poten- tial as thinkers and users of language is thwarted. In contrast, children will develop normally and their thinking becomes divergent and complex when they are exposed to a natural language environment that provides them with wide-ranging and multifaceted concepts. Vygotsky ( 1978 ) claimed that learning needs to be practical and authentic in the children's environment; specifically, it must be appropriately based on their daily lives and practices of their community or culture. Sociocultural theory is founded on the paradigm that human events occur in cultural contexts, which are facili- tated by language and more symbolic structures. It is a component of Vygotsky’s theory that explains learning as a social process and the initiation of human intelligence in society or culture. Sociocultural theory concentrates on the interaction between individuals and the culture in their envi- ronment, showing that human learning is primarily a social process. In the early twentieth century, Vygotsky stated that this theory indicated that young children’s cognitive devel- opment improved during their social interaction with others. In so many words, children become social learners before becoming cognitive thinkers who generate knowledge (Sara- cho & Evans, 2021 ). Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory affirms that learning is a social process and the beginning of human intelligence is rooted in society or culture. The main concept of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction assumes an important function in children’s cognitive development. Vygotsky thought that learning was a social process. First, children interact with others and then integrate the informa- tion they obtain from the social interaction into their mental structure. The children’s cultural development emerges at the social level and then at the individual level, which is first between others (interpsychological) and then inside each child (intrapsychological). This process relates similarly to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the develop- ment of concepts. All the advanced functions originate as actual relationships between individuals (Vygotsky, 1978 ). Vygotsky contributed numerous additional important con- cepts that provide an understanding of children’s learning. Possibly the renowned zone of proximal development (ZPD) is Vygotsky’s best concept. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Another feature of Vygotsky’s theory is the concept that the possibility for cognitive development is restricted to a "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). Such a "zone" is the domain for which children are cognitively ready, but to completely advance, they need support and social interac- tion (Briner, 1999 ). Vygotsky perceived that children pro- gress through their zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is the place past an individual’s independent perfor- mance. Children are able to function in this zone and cre- ate innovative abilities through the support of more mature thinkers. These innovative abilities are then merged into

23 Early Childhood Education Journal (2023) 51:15–30 1 3 elements of the more intricate behavior would reinforce it and promote its repetition. Thus, reinforcers managed the appearance of the preferred partial behaviors. Learning is assumed to be a step-by-step or consecutive estimate of the targeted behaviors through the use of reward and punish- ment. The most recognized use of Skinner’s theory is “pro- grammed instruction” by which the correct order of some behaviors that need to be learned is stated by detailed task analysis. Behavioral theory had a leading theoretical impact in psychology for approximately a century. Though it was basically a theory of learning, it is also considered a theory of development. In contrast to the maturationists, behavior- ists thought that, other than physical maturation, the big- gest impacts on human development are found in the envi- ronment. Behavioral theorists believe that the individuals’ learning is integrated into their collection of experiences, is expanded through the years, and finally integrates develop- ment. Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward L. Thorndike, and B. F. Skinner are eminent pioneers of behavioral theory. Pavlov’s Theories Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) found the principle of conditioning in his research with animals in Russia. In determining the physiological dogs’ reactions to food, he observed that the dogs salivated in response to food and simultaneously ring- ing a bell. Eventually, the dogs salivated when they heard the bell sound even if food was not present. Relating a novel stimulus with a stimulus that led to a natural response turned out to be the foundation for the behavior termed “respondent or classical conditioning.” The principle is that an animal or human being relates a novel stimulus to the initial one and reacts the same way . Watson’s Theories John B. Watson (1878–1959) applied the principles of respondent conditioning to child development and learning in the United States. Watson was interested in establishing a scientific system to investigate the way individuals behave under different environmental conditions. He invented the term behaviorism to create a method of investigating learn- ing through observing behavior instead of hypothesizing about the internal structure of the mind. Watson thought that the environment could be manipulated and controlled to have an impact on the individual’s learning and develop- ment. He established a technology using theories of respond- ent conditioning. Thorndike’s Theories Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) was also interested in the scientific research of learning. He tried to describe the procedure about how stimuli are connected to reactions. He established a group of "laws" to clarify the procedure. Pri- marily essential to the procedure was the law of effect . His law of effect principle suggested that: … responses that produce a satisfying effect in a par- ticular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discom- forting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation (Gray & Bjorklund, 2017 , p. 108–109). This law specified that a response is reinforced if it is pre- ceded by an enjoyable effect and is weakened if it is suc- ceeded by a disliking effect. The law of exercise specified that the more recurrently a stimulus–response connection is offered, the more it will be preserved. The law of readi- ness recommended that learning is more successful when the nervous classification is prompted by an activity. Thorndike's law of effect was a forerunner to the concept of reinforcement that was the source for Skinner's method to behaviorism. Thorndike's studies also influenced kinder- garten teachers because he thought that children had the nor- mal inclination to create habits. He believed that appropriate habits should be reinforced at an early age, whereas bad ones should be repressed during the children’s early years in order that they do not have to unlearn them. Habit training became an important component in the kindergarten classrooms dur- ing the first quarter of the twentieth century. Skinner Theories Burrhus Frederic (B. F.) Skinner (1904–1990) was an American psychologist and a leading advocate of behavior- ism, which views human behavior in relation to reactions to environmental stimuli and prefers the controlled, scientific study of responses as the best straight way of explaining human nature. Skinner was employed as a clerk at a bookstore when he came across the writings by Pavlov and Watson, which became a defining moment in his life and profession. He became particularly interested in Pavlov’s conditioned reflexes and the concepts by Watson, the creator of behav- iorism. In 1931 he obtained a doctorate from Harvard Uni- versity and continued as a researcher until 1936. Then he became a faculty member at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, where he wrote The Behavior of Organisms (Skinner, 1938 ). Between 1945 and 1948 he taught psychol- ogy at Indiana University, Bloomington, and in 1948 he returned to Harvard University as a professor of psychology

26 Early Childhood Education Journal (2023) 51:15–30 1 3 individual identity, and the interactions of psychology with history, politics, and culture, which attracted much popular interest. Since Erikson went to art school, in 1927 Anna Freud, the psychoanalyst, invited him to teach art, history, and geography at a small private school in Vienna. Anna observed Erikson's kindness to children at the school and persuaded him to study psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psy- choanalytic Institute. Well-known analysts (e.g., August Aichhorn, Heinz Hartmann, Paul Federn) supervised his theoretical studies. He specialized in child analysis and underwent a training analysis with Anna Freud. He became interested in psychoanalysis, received training, and became a psychoanalyst (Friedman, 1999 ). His interest in the treatment of children led him to publish his first paper in 1930. In 1933, before finishing his psycho- analytic training, he was elected to the Vienna Psychoana- lytic Institute and emigrated to the United States (Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020 ). He accepted a posi- tion as a research associate at the Harvard Psychological Clinic. Simultaneously, he began to work on his doctorate in psychology at Harvard University. He was conflicted with the quantitative, empirical focus of Harvard’s Psychology Department. In 1936 Erikson ceased his studies without completing his degree. During the following 20 years, he shifted his interests to human development and carried out research at Yale and Berkeley and also maintained his private psycho- analytic practice (Coles et al., 2002 ). After 2 years, Erikson started his initial research on cultural effects on psychologi- cal development. He studied Sioux Indian children in South Dakota and later collaborated with the anthropologist Alfred Kroeber who was studying the Yurok Indians of northern California. Erikson used the results from these studies to develop his theory that all societies develop cultures to adapt their personality development but that the standard resolu- tions to parallel difficulties differ with each society. In 1939 Erikson relocated his clinical practice to San Francisco and in 1942 he joined the psychology faculty at the University of California, Berkeley. Throughout the 1940s, he wrote his book Childhood and Society (Erikson, 1950 ) that describes his views on psychosocial development that is divided into eight stages. In each stage, individuals encounter their personal psychosocial needs that continue throughout old age. The individuals’ personality develop- ment follows a sequence of dilemmas. Individuals need to be prepared to overpower and be ready for the next devel- opmental stage. Psychodynamic Therapy Psychoanalytic theory inspired psychodynamic therapy. While psychoanalytic theory and modern psychodynamic therapy grew from the same source, there are several important differences between the two forms of therapy. They are two terms that many people frequently misinterpret and use them interchangeably. The major difference between psychoanalytic and psychodynamic is their foundation. Psy- choanalytic theory indicates the perspective and theoreti- cal concepts that Sigmund Freud initiated. Psychodynamic therapy specifies the perspective and concepts Sigmund Freud and his followers implemented. Thus, psychoanalysis is the initial foundation of a psychological perspective which allows psychologists to concentrate on the individual’s mind. Psychodynamic therapy has had a profound impact on both child development and early childhood education. It grew out of a clinical practice instead of a research labo- ratory. It focuses on personality, although psychoanalysis treats adults’ personality problems. Melanie Klein, a psycho- analyst who is recognized for her work in child analysis, took psychoanalytic thinking to an innovative direction (King, 1983 ; Steiner, 2017 ). She acknowledged the meaning of the children’s beginning childhood experiences in the develop- ment of their adult emotional world. In the process, psycho- dynamic therapy provides an understanding of the effects that their childhood had on their growing personalities. In addition, it provided some major understandings about child- hood that researchers can use in studying children. Another theoretical basis that assists psychologists to understand the individual’s mind is psychoanalysis, which consists of a par- ticular therapy, theories, and techniques. Impact of Psychoanalytic Theory The expression of feelings as well as ideas is also important for mental health. The expressive arts are important tools that allow young children to express their ideas and feel- ings. Young children may not have the competence to use language to express all their thoughts and feelings. Various forms of expression—art, music, and movement—allow children to express those ideas and feelings that they cannot express in words (Alschuler & Hattwick, 1947 ). Children also use play (particularly dramatic play) to communicate their feelings and thoughts. They assume roles to drama- tize difficult circumstances, which help them to deal with negative feelings and to settle emotional struggles that they cannot handle in their actual life. Thus, play offers a type of therapy for children (Axline, 1974 ). Both Freud and Erikson have made important contribu- tions to early childhood education. Both theorists considered early childhood education to be vital to young children. Both discovered struggles that young children need to resolve to develop into mentally healthy adults. Both Freud and Erik- son recommended that early childhood educators assume an active role. Based on Freudian theory, teachers need to provide a mentally healthy environment where children are free to communicate their personal feelings without being

29 Early Childhood Education Journal (2023) 51:15–30 1 3 theory). Learners are actively engaged, which is basic for most theories. Such active engagement can consist of attempting to comprehend, think, manage information, cooperate with others, manage their emotions throughout learning, and receive corrective feedback, which is part of behaviorist theory. Examples of active engagement include: • Children are active learners in behaviorist theory because they use feedback to correct their responses. • Understanding relates to all theories. Children process and understand the information to reflect and consider sociocultural matters. The theories that have been reviewed represent the theo- rists’ insights on child development. Developmental theories offer early childhood education researchers and educators the information about the young children’s interests and capabilities at various age periods. Such information pro- vides descriptive statements that help researchers and edu- cators identify the children’s abilities and developmental norms that are consistent with their age. A norm is simply an average of the children’s characteristics, but it is merely an approximation for each child. Children may be the same in many respects, but they also differ from each other in major ways. Consequently, children should to considered separately and be assessed based on developmental norms before beginning a research or educational plan and estab- lishing expectations (Saracho, 2020 ). References Alschuler, R., & Hattwick, L. (1947). Painting and personality . Uni- versity of Chicago Press. Axline, V. (1974). Play therapy . Ballentine Books. Berk, L. (2021). Infants, children, and adolescents . Pearson. Bijou, S. W. (1975). Development in the preschool years: A functional analysis. American Psychologist, 30 (8), 829–837. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/h0077069 Bijou, S. W. (1977). Behavior analysis applied to early childhood edu- cation. In B. Spodek & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Early childhood education: Issues and insights (pp. 138–156). McCutchan Pub- lishing Corporation. Boghossion, P. (2006). Behaviorism, constructivism, and Socratic pedagogy. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 38 (6), 713–722. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2006.00226.x Bower, B. (1986). Skinner boxing. Science News, 129 (6), 92–94. https://doi.org/10.2307/3970364 Briner, M. (1999). Learning theories . University of Colorado. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). Developmental research, public policy, and the ecology of childhood. Child Development, 45 (1), 1–5. https:// doi.org/10.2307/1127743 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development . Har- vard University Press. Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education . Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. S. (1990). Acts of meaning . Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (2004). A short history of psychological theories of learning. Daedalus, 133 (1), 13–20. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1162/ 00115 26047 72746657 Coles, R., Hunt, R., & Maher, B. (2002). Erik Erikson: Faculty of Arts and Sciences Memorial Minute. Harvard Gazette Archives . http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/03.07/22-memor ialmi nute.html Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2020). Erik Erikson . https:// www.britannica.com/biography/Erik-Erikson Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society . Norton. Freud, A. (1935). Psychoanalysis for teachers and parents . Emerson Books. Friedman, L. J. (1999). Identity’s architect: A biography of Erik H . Scribner Publishing Company. Gesell, A. (1928). In infancy and human growth . Macmillan Co. Gesell, A. (1933). Maturation and the patterning of behavior. In C. Murchison (Ed.), A handbook of child psychology (pp. 209–235). Russell & Russell/Atheneum Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1037/ 11552-004 Gesell, A., & Ilg, F. L. (1946). The child from five to ten . Harper & Row. Gesell, A., Ilg, F. L., & Ames, L. B. (1978). Child behavior . Harper & Row. Gesell, A., & Thompson, H. (1938). The psychology of early growth, including norms of infant behavior and a method of genetic analy- sis . Macmillan Co. von Glasersfeld, E. (1995). Radical constructivism: A way of knowing and learning . Falmer. von Glasersfeld, E. (2005). Introduction: Aspects of constructivism. In C. T. Fosnot (Ed.), Constructivism: Theory, perspectives and practice (pp. 3–7). Teachers College. Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (1996). Theories and principles of motiva- tion. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of edu- cational psychology (pp. 63–84). Macmillan Library Reference. Gray, P. O., & Bjorklund, D. F. (2017). Psychology (8th ed.). Worth Publishers. Hilgard, E. R. (1987). Psychology in America: A historical survey . Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Hunt, J. . Mc. V. (1961). Intelligence and experience . Ronald Press. Jenkins, E. W. (2000). Constructivism in school science education: Powerful model or the most dangerous intellectual tendency? Science and Education, 9 , 599–610. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1023/A: 1008778120803 Jones, M. G., & Brader-Araje, L. (2002). The impact of constructiv- ism on education: Language, discourse, and meaning. American Communication Studies, 5 (3), 1–1. Kamii, C., & DeVries, R. (1978/1993.) Physical knowledge in pre- school education: Implications of Piaget’s theory . Teachers Col- lege Press. King, P. H. (1983). The life and work of Melanie Klein in the British Psycho-Analytical Society. The International Journal of Psycho- Analysis, 64 (Pt 3), 251–260. PMID: 6352537. Malone, J. C. (2014). Did John B. Watson really “Found” Behaviorism? The Behavior Analyst , 37 (1) ,  1–12. https:// doi- org. proxy- um. resea rchport.umd.edu/10.1007/s40614-014-0004-3 Miller, P. H. (2016). Theories of developmental psychology (6th ed.). Worth Publishers. Morphett, M. V., & Washburne, C. (1931). When should children begin to read? Elementary School Journal, 31 (7), 496–503. https://doi. org/10.1086/456609 Murphy, L. (1962). The widening world of childhood . Basic Books. National Association for the Education of Young Children. (No date). Build your public policy knowledge/Head Start . https:// www. naeyc.org/our-work/public-policy-advocacy/head-start Reichling, L. (2017). The Skinner Box. Article Library. https://blog. customboxesnow.com/the-skinner-box/