Chapter 7 Memory

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Oct 30, 2023

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Psychology Textbook Reading and Lecture Notes Chapter 7 Memory 7.1 Memory Systems The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model - Model includes 3 memory stores 1) Sensory Memory 2) Short Term Memory (STM) 3) Long Term Memory (LTM) - Stores= retain information in the memory without using it for any specific purpose - Control processes = shift information from one memory store to another - Attention = selects information which will be passed on to STM - Encoding= process of storing information in the LTM system (we retrieve only some information and lose the rest) - Retrieval= brings information from the LTM back into the STM (happens when you become aware of existing memories) 1a. Sensory Memory Definicion= memory store that accurately holds perceptual information for a very brief amount of time Iconic memory= the visual form of sensory memory (held for fraction of one second) - Test done by CLANCY: showing us a series of letters on the screen than a little box afterwards as a cue to try to remember the letters in the box specifically. - Examples: hearing a word after missing a sentence than chimin into a convo Echoic memory= the auditory form of sensory memory (held for longer 2-5 seconds) - This is the form of sensory memory that will allow you to repeat back the words you just heard, even though you may be thinking about something else. Testing: - Iconic sensory memory can be tested by flashing a grid of letters on the screen quickly then attempting to recall as many letters on the screen - This is able to occur because of attention, that will move a small amount of information from our sensory memory into the STM memory for further processing. 1b. Short Term Memory and Magic Number 7 Definicion= a memory storage with limited capacity and duration (approx. 30 seconds) - Capacity of STM was summed up as “The Magic Number 7 Plus or Minus Two - Psychologist Miller found that participants were able to remember 7 units of information, give or take a couple. - Limitation in duration: - After 3 seconds, only 50% of information is recalled - After 12 seconds, NOTHING is remembered Chunking= organizing smaller units of information into larger more meaningful units. Larger units are referred to as chunks. - Eg: chucking phone numbers together; 416, 239, 905 into one thing The Working Memory Model: An ActIve STM System

Psychology Textbook Reading and Lecture Notes 1c. Long Term Memory Definicion= holds information for extended periods of time, if not permanently. - No capacity limitations - Realistically only a small amount of information from the STM gets encoded or transformed into a more permanent representation that we can initially access later on. - 2 ways that organization occurs once info is entered into LTM; 1) Based on semantic categories - Semantically related groups are stored near each other in the LTM. 2) LTM is organized based on the sounds of the word and how the word looks, - Explains Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon. - TOT= when you are able to retrieve similar sounding words or words that start with the same letter but can’t quite retrieve the word you actually want. -The process of accessing memorized information and returning it to short term memory is influenced by the quality of original encoding and strategies used to retrieve information. What are Some Ways to Improve the Process of Encoding? 1) Elaboration: linking stimuli to something else at the time of encoding (chunking, mnemonics) 2) Visual Imagery: creating visual images to represent what you remember 3) Self-Referent: deciding how/ weather information is relevant to you (related information to things that are meaningful and important to you) Forgettin: 1) Encoding failure 2) Storage decay: passage of time 3) Retrieval failure: may be able to access memory at another time or with a clue The Working Memory Model: An Active STM System - Rehearsal = repeating information until you do not need to remember it anymore - Working model= a model of short term remembering that includes a combination of memory components that can temporarily store small amounts of information for a short period of time. - Associates NEW and OLD information - Working memory model can be subdivided into 3 storage components. 1) Phonological Loop 2) Visuospatial Sketchpad 3) Episodic Buffer - These storage components are coordinated by a control center= central executive. - Central executive: helps decide which of the working-memory stores is most important at any given moment (control center for working memory) - Combines all 3 of the components; coordinates info, tries to prioritize and emphase relevant information, some info can be transferred into long term memory,

Psychology Textbook Reading and Lecture Notes - 1a. The Phonological Loop Definicion= a storage component of working memory that relies on rehearsal and stores information as sounds/ an auditory code. Word length effect= people remember more one-syllable words (sum, play, bar) than 4 or 5 syllable words (helicopter, university) in a short term memory. - Working memory can only store as many syllables as can be rehearsed in about 2 seconds and this information is retained for 15 to 30 seconds - This can relate to what we learned about chucking - Individuals could chuck shorter words together but fewer longer words would be remembered with the chunking method. 1b The Visuospatial Sketchpad Definicion= a storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in a visuospatial code. - Keeps you up to date with where objects are around you and where you intend to go. - This sketchpad engages portions of the brain related to the perception of vision and space - Items stored in visuospatial memory can be counted based on visual features such as shape, color and texture. - Feature binding= process of combining visual features into single unit 1c The Episodic Buffer: relevance of info Definicion= storage component of working memory that combines the images and sounds from the other two components into a coherent, story- like episodes. - Holds 10 pieces of information, that may be combined to other memory stores Central Executive Definicion= the control center of working memory; coordinates attention and the exchange of information among the 3 storage components. - It does this by examining what information is relevant to the person’s goals, interests and prior knowledge and then focusing attention on the working memory component whose information will be most useful in that situation. - For example; rehearsing a series of letters from an alphabet, it is easy to remember the letters by rehearing them in a phonological loop. - But if you were to look at letters from an unfamiliar alphabet you wouldn't be able to convert them into sounds. Summary/ Putting all the Pieces Together Scenario: when you pull over your car immediately to place the 10th call to win the trip to Costa Rica. Phonological loop will repeat the number to ourselves until we can call it (1-800-555-HITS)

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Psychology Textbook Reading and Lecture Notes Visuospatial sketchpad remembering where other drivers are in relation to our car Episodic buffer binds together all this information into episodes. That could include “I was driving to school” then the DJ announced a contest and “I wanted to pull over and call the station”. In the middle of this activity is the central executive which gives attention and ensures that each component is working on the appropriate task.- prioritizing one storage component over another dependent on what the task at hand is Long Term Memory Systems: Declarative and Nondeclarative Memories Declarative memories (explicit memories)= memories that we are consciously aware of and that can be verbalized, including facts about the world and our own personal experiences - Think declarative memories= thing we can declare Nondeclarive memories (implicit memories)= action of behaviors that you can remember and perform without awareness - Memories about things we CANNOT declare Declarative Memory - Comes in 2 varieties 1) Episodic memories= declarative memories for personal experiences that seem to be organized around “episodes” and are recalled from a first person (“I” or “my”) perspective. - Summary: talking about experiences you’ve already had. - Eg: first day of university, party you went to last month, etc 2) Semantic memories= declarative memories that influence facts about the world. - Eg: knowing facts about the capital of New Brunswick, remembering moms b day - SUMMARY: based on facts - If you were to then be asked the steps to make a coffee this would then become declarative. Differences of the two types of Memories: Your semantic memory is your knowledge of what a bike is, whereas episodic memory is the memory of a specific time when you rode a bike. Both these memory representations can be active at the same time. Nondeclarative Memory: recalling memories from the past - MEMORIES ARE BASED ON FACTS- THEY CAN BE DECLARED - Occurs when a previous experience influences performance on a task that does not require the person to intentionally remember those experiences. - Eg: trying to figure out how to ride a bike again, to make coffee you boil water - YOU ARE JUST DOING THESE THINGS AUTOMATICALLY AND JUST DON’T SAY THE STEPS - Nondeclarative memories are not isolated to cases of amnesia - Best example of non declarative memory= procedural memory - Procedural memory= leonard patterns of muscle movements (motor memory) such as how to walk, play piano, tie your shoes or drive a car.

Psychology Textbook Reading and Lecture Notes - Procedural memory= just the physical process of how to do something- a branch/ TYPE/ FORM of non declarative memory - Once procedural memories are formed we often don’t think of the individual steps involved or pay attention to the task, yet they can be executed flawlessly most times. - Example #2: Classical conditioning Prospective: memories to perform things in the future Retrospective: memories from the past The Cognitive Neuroscience Memory Memory at the Cellular Level: cells that fire together fit together. - Donald Hebb suggested that when neurons fire at the same time, it leads to chemical and physical changes in the neurons, making them more likely again to fire in the future. Long-term Potentiation (LTP): demonstrates that there is an enduring increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signals between nerve cells that fire together Consolidation= process of converting short-term memories into the long-term memories in the brain Cellular Consolidation= when neurons fire together a number of times, they will adapt and make changes caused by LTP that are more predominant Amnesia: profound loss of at least one form of memory. Anterograde Amnesia: the inability to form new memories for events occurring after a brain injury. Memory storage= refers to the time and manner in which information is retained between encoding and retrieval. - Memory storage is an active process; where stores memories can be updated regularly Reconsolidaton= where the hippocampus functions to update, strengthen or modify existing long term memories. Cross Cortical storage= a phenomenon where long term declarative memories are distributed throughout the cortex of the brain, rather than being localized in one region - The more than memory is retrieved, the larger and more distributed that network will becomes Retrograde amnesia= a condition is which memory for the events preceding trauma or injury is lost (eg: many people who have experienced a brain injury will report that they cannot recall some of the events leading up to their accident) Amnesia can apply to memory problems in both directions. It can wipe out old memories or prevent the consolidation of new memories. Retrograde Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia Inability to remember what was already known at the onset of amnesia Inability or limited inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia. 6.2 Encoding and Retrieving Memories

Psychology Textbook Reading and Lecture Notes Encoding and Retrieval - Memory consists of encoding new information, storing that information and then retrieving that stored information at a later time. Rehearsal: The Basics of Encoding - Maintenance rehearsal= prolonging exposure to information by repeating it (this does relatively little to help the formation of long-term memories) - Elaborative rehearsal= prolonging exposure to information by thinking about it’s meaning (eg: repeating the word bottle, then imagining what a bottle looks like and how it is used, is an elaborative technique0 What is the Difference between Maintenance Rehearsal vs Elaborative Rehearsal? Maintenance rehearsal helps us to remember for a very short time while elaborative rehearsal improves long term learning and memory. Levels of Processing (LOP) - Differences in processing can be described as a continuum ranging from shallow to deep processing. - Shallow processing: involves encoding more superficial properties of a stimulus such as the sound or spelling of a word - Deep processing: generally related to encoding information about an item’s meaning or it’s function - Self-reference effect: occurs when you think about information in terms of how it relates to you or how it is useful to you (this type of encoding will lead to you remembering that information better than you otherwise would have) Retrieval - 2 types of intentional memory retrieval 1) Recognition: involved identifying a stimulus or piece of information when it is presented to you (eg: identifying someone you know on the bus, answering standard multiple choice questions) - Summary: utilizing info with some kind of cue 2) Recall: involves retrieving information when asked, but without that information being present during the retrieval process (eg: describing a friends appearance to someone else or answer short answer questions on an exam) - Recall is helped when there are hints or retrieval cues, helping to prompt our memory (eg: being giving the first letter words of gr to remember the word grape) - Summary: utilizing info without some kind of cue - Encoding specificity principle: when retrieval is most effective when the conditions at the time of encoding and retrieval are the same. - This principle can take many forms and can have internal contexts such as mood, whether a person is intoxicated. State-Dependent Memory Definicion: a phenomenon where retrieval is more effective when your internal state matches the state you were in during encoding

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Psychology Textbook Reading and Lecture Notes Mood-Dependent Memory Definicion: people remember better if their mood at retrieval matches their mood during encoding - For example, when volunteers in a study generated words while in a pleasant mood then attempted to remember them in either the same or different modd. Results indicated that if the type of mood at encoding and retrieval matched, then memory was superior. Emotional Memories: Weapon focus= the tendency to focus on a weapon at the expense of peripheral information, including the identity of the person holding the weapon. - Eg: In court trials. Many eye-witnesses to a crime will often forget what the criminal looks like because they were so focused on the weapon the criminal was holding! Flashbulb memory= an extremely vivid and detailed memory about an event and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event Forgetting and Memories Forgetting curve= shows that most forgetting occurs right away and that the rate of forgetting eventually slows to the point where one does not seem to forget at all. Mnemonics = technique intended to improve memory for specific information Method of Loci= a mnemonic that connects words to be remembered to locations along a familiar path Acronyms= pronouable words whose letters represent the initial of an important phrase or set of items (eg: Roy. G. Biv) Dual coding= occurs when information is stored in more than one form (eg: verbal description, visual image, sound) - Leads to deeper processing (as opposed to shallow) because additional sensory representations require some effort to create and produce a larger number of memory associations. Desirable difficulties= techniques that make studying slower and effortful but result in better overall remembering. - Spacing out study sessions into smaller chunks Testing Effect= finding that taking practice tests can improve exam performance, even without additional studying 6.3 Constructing and Reconstructing Memories How Memories Are Organized and Constructed Schemas: organized clusters of memories that constitute a person’s knowledge or beliefs about events, objects and ideas Schemas and the Self Infantile amnesia= links you back to the earliest memory that you can recall - Self-schemes begin to develop around the age of 18- 24 months old

Psychology Textbook Reading and Lecture Notes - Memory Reconstruction False Memory= remembering events that did NOT occur, or incorrectly recalling details of an event - Incorrect memories do not necessarily indicate a dysfunction of memory but reflect normal memory processes that are inherently imperfect. Misinformation effect= when information occurring after an event becomes part of the memory for that event Imagination Inflation= the increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event. Guided imagery= a technique used by some clinicians (and some police investigators) to help people recover details of events that they are unable to remember. - Involves a guide giving instructions to participants to imagine a certain event. DRM procedure= participants study a list of highly related words called semantic associates (meaning they are associated by meaning) Recovered memory= a memory of a traumatic event that is suddenly recovered after blocking the memory of that event for a long period of time. Key Terms Summary: - Amnesia - Anterograde Amnesia Module 1: - Attention - Central executive - Chunking - Consolidation - Control process - Cross-cortical storage - Declarative (explicit) memory - Echoic memory - Encoding - Episodic buffer - Episodic memory - Feature binding - Iconic memory - Long term memory (LTM) - Long term potentiation (LTP) - Memory - Nondeclarative (implicit) memory - Phonological loop - Proactive interference - Procedural memory - Reconsolidation

Psychology Textbook Reading and Lecture Notes - Rehearsal - Retrieval - Retroactive interference - Retrograde amnesia - Semantic memory - Sensory memory - Serial position effect - Short term memory (STM) - Storage - Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon - Visuospatial sketchpad - Word-length effect - Working memory Module 2: - Acronym - Context-dependent memory - Deep processing - Desirable difficulties - Dual coding - Elaborative rehearsal - Encoding Specificity Principle - First-Letter Technique - Flashbulb memory - Forgetting curve - Maintenance rehearsal - Method of loci - Mnemonic - Mood-dependent memory - Recall - Recognition - Self-reference effect - State-dependent memory - Shallow processing - Testing effect - Weapon focus Module 3: - Constructive memory - DRM procedure - False memory - Guided imagery - Imagination inflation - Infantile amnesia - Misinformation effect - Recovered memory

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