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While Jean Piaget was working in the Alfred Binet Laboratory school in Paris in 1919, he discovered that children made diverse mistakes when solving problems. Piaget believed that children made mistakes due to the quality of their intelligence rather than quantity. For example, a child who is 2 years old might not know how to put blocks into the correct slots on a game yet place them in their way, but a 4-year-old might correctly place each shape in the appropriate slot due to greater cognitive advances. Piaget proposed four stages of development: sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage. These stages are described by age and the cognitive skill level the age group may have (Sidik, 2020). In 1918, Piaget was influenced by Carl Jung and Alfred Binet. At the time, Jung constructed his theory of human development and the several stages of life called childhood, youth, middle life, and old age. Piaget studied under Jung and Binet in Jurich, Switzerland, at the University of Zurich. Cultural factors that led Piaget to the study of children were Binet’s intelligence test for children with whom he was collaborating with Theodore Simon at the time. Piaget then studied for two years in Paris, where he constructed a similar model of Jung’s stages of life but solely focused on childhood (Sidik, 2020). Piaget wrote over 50 books and essays throughout his career. The Language and Thought of a Child is to synthesize how children reach conclusions from situations. He incorporates studies from psychoanalysis and social psychology to understand how children develop from their surroundings through the development of language (Sidik, 2020). Another book he wrote was Judgment and Reasoning in the Child. This book is about how children contemplate judgment and reasoning. He then explains that a child is ego-centric and their reasoning skills are limited until the age of 12. The analysis of moral thinking is also studied in this book, which examines how children’s attitudes change over time due to age (Kohnstamm, 2021). Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development focused on the intellectual development of children, who back then were thought of as mini-adults and nothing more. The Moral Judgement of the Child was published in 1932 where he explains his cognitive stages of development. This theory is highly looked upon in education and psychology. The stages of development is also used in the early childhood education classroom as well (Sidik, 2020). Jean Piaget’s theory analyzes how children and youth grow to become more logical with age. Piaget’s theory believed that understanding is advanced by the interaction of adaptation, which is altering new experiences to adapt to prior perceptions while accommodating changing perceptions to adapt to new experiences. Piaget believed play is a part of the child’s development and learning. Practice play during the infant stage, symbolic play when a child is a toddler, and social play is when the child is during the ages of 7-11. Examples of social play would be role-playing and pretend play for play therapy. The balance of symbolic play and linguistic expression creates a beneficial therapeutic reaction to prior experiences. For example, a child who recently had their home catch on fire pretends that their stuffed frog’s house is on fire and gathers all the other stuffed animals to rescue and put the fire out. Pretend play can help a child interpret trauma, thus allowing the child to understand why things happened the way they did. The strengths of Piaget’s theory include the universal stages of development and the cognitive development of each stage. Weaknesses include vagueness and controversy in the transitional

process through the stages. Also, cultural and social interaction factors in children’s mental cognition development are ethical and moral issues (Kohnstamm, 2021). David Elkind expanded Piaget's theory of cognitive development revolving around egocentricity. This is based on the belief that others are fascinated with their behaviors and appearance. This is an active -construction of an imaginary audience contributing to early adolescent self-consciousness. Elkind also researches the personal fable, another result of egocentrism derived from Piaget’s studies. This personal fable is where a child feels special and unique. Elkind's theory of adolescent egocentrism is deficient in depth of the development of a child's physical and social self (Su, 2022). David Elkind came up with the term imaginary audience, which focuses on the behavior and actions of other people's attention besides one’s own. At the time, he was a professor at Tufts University in Massachusetts, where he published a book called The Hurried Child, The Power of Play (Su, 2022). David Elkind’s research processes include applying theory and research to real-life scenarios such as education, parenting, and psychotherapy. He also has used the imaginary audience scale (IAS) to measure the effects of an imaginary audience. The IAS comprises two subscales: the transient self (TS) and the abiding self (AS). The TS has six potentially embarrassing situations, and the AS has six potentially revealing situations. Criticism for this scale includes lacking strong psychometric properties, the reliance on hypothetical situations, and the measurement of self-conscientiousness rather than the imaginary audience (Doorey, 2023). In the eyes of David Elkind, a portion of a session for an adolescent having a hard time developing self- concept would consist of boosting the adolescent’s ego-centrism. The counselor would hold a mirror up to the adolescent and ask them if they can say out loud positive things about themselves, such as “I am capable of more than I see” and “I believe in myself,” which can significantly help boost a positive self- concept plus enhance the adolescents’ ego-centrism the way Elkind explained the adolescent stage of development would be (Biney et al., 2021). These positive affirmation exercises can help overcome negative thought processes and relieve self-doubt. Research has shown that positive affirmations increase mental well-being, help with the vulnerability of behavioral changes, release stress and improve academic performance. Positive aspects of this exercise include versatility, the client can do this technique at home, and ease of technique (Bosher, 2024). The disadvantages of this therapeutic technique include unrealistic expectations and even a disconnect from reality, which is why follow-up sessions are essential to discuss the effectiveness of this treatment (Biney et al., 2021).

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