PSYC 207 Exam 1 Study Guide

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PSYC 207: Exam 1 Study Guide Introduction to Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination: 1. Match the A-B-C terms listed below with their correct component—stereotyping, prejudice, or discrimination.  A ffect: Prejudice an attitude directed towards perceived members of a group  B ehavior: Discrimination treating people differently based on their perceived group membership  C ognition: Stereotyping a belief about the characteristics of perceived members of a group 2. Positive stereotypes typically do not have a negative impact on stereotyped group members' well-being (True/ False). 3. Provide a real-world example for each of the following kinds of discrimination:  Interpersonal: One person treats another in a certain way because of the target’s group membership EXAMPLE: Refusing to use a person’s pronouns, avoiding sitting next to a Black man on a bus, asking a woman to take notes during a meeting (asking a women to take notes during a lecture)  Organizational: A formal organization’s practices, rules, or policies cause discriminatory outcomes EXAMPLE : corporation, company, (Abercrombie scandal, where they only had "good looking white Americans" model their clothes because they were considered as cool kids) (Denial of paternity leave)  Institutional: A social institution’s norms, policies, and practices result in different outcomes for different groups (e xists at a broader level than organizational discrimination) EXAMPLE : family, religion, educational system, criminal justice system, healthcare system (POC are targeted to go into the prison system)  Cultural: The dominant group in society retains the power to define the culture’s value system EXAMPLE: literature, art, music, language, morals, customs, ideology (men and women cake toppers) 4. What are the pros and cons of self-report measures of prejudice? Stereotypes: Ask people what they think about a certain group, Ask people to match traits to groups Prejudice: Ask people on a questionnaire how a particular group makes them feel Discrimination: Ask people what behaviors they have (or would) engage in  Pros : Easy to collect, inexpensive  Cons : Social Desirability 5. What are the pros and cons of physiological measures of prejudice?  Pros : Untainted by social desirability  Cons: Expensive, time-consuming, can only provide a rough indicator of prejudice

+ BONUS Behavioral Observations Pros: Slightly less tainted by social desirability Cons: Can be difficult to measure/quantify some behaviors (requires coding), expensive, time-consuming, hard to create realism Implicit Measures Pros: Largely untainted by social desirability Cons: Typically limited to lab environment Categorization & Stereotype Formation: 6. Henri Tajfel conducted a series of studies using the minimal groups paradigm.  The findings of these studies show that membership in a group is enough to produce individual's identity .  When participants were presented with the choice between (1) maximizing the absolute/total amount of money that the ingroup member received versus (2) ensuring that the ingroup member received more money than an outgroup member, even if that was a lower absolute amount of money, which option (#1 or #2) did they tend to choose? Option 2 7. According to Social Identity Theory, we are motivated to have social identities that (1) positive and (2) set us apart from others . This concept is known as Positive Distinctiveness ? (maybe) 8. Park & Rothbart (1982) asked sorority members to rate (1) how similar members of their own sorority were to one another , and (2) how similar members of different sororities on campus were to one another.  What were the findings of this study? Researches found that we perceive ingroup members as more diverse and outgroup as more similar as we interact with people in our in-group  Park & Rothbart's (1982) findings illustrate what concept? Illustrates that they are diverse and complex as we see their personalities across many situations) 9. According to the ultimate attribution error , we tend to attribute outgroup members' negative behaviors to personality , and outgroup members' positive behaviors to situation . 10. Duncan (1976) had participants (all White) watch a video of two men involving an ambiguous shove.  What differed between the two conditions? Either white or black individual  What were the findings of this study? The white attacker was rated as less aggressive than the black attacker. 11. Which theory proposes that stereotypes arise because people believe we ARE the roles we PLAY?

 Social Role Theory (Eagly, 1987) (women are caring and nurturing --> have careers that are based on these traits) Stereotype Maintenance: 12. State whether each of the following increases or decreases the likelihood of stereotype application .  Stereotype activation is largely automatic but not inevitable  Stereotype application depends on a variety of factors  Motivation to act/respond without prejudice: DECREASE  Having cognitive resources (e.g., able to be alert, attentive): DECREASE  Having access to individuating information: DECREASE  Threats to one’s self-esteem: INCREASE 13. Briefly explain how confirmation bias shapes:  What information we seek out versus ignore: Seek out: Brain prefers to assimilate info into pre-existing schemas (seeking out and attending to info that confirms OUR PRE-EXISTING BELIEFS) Ignore: Accommodating the schema or broader network (FACTS AND EVIDENCE)  How we interpret information: We interpret others behavior in ways that fit our stereotypes when observing.  What information we remember: information about other people that confirms our stereotypes and forget information that violates our stereotypes.  How we interact with others/the reactions we evoke: Evoke reactions/information that confirm our pre-existing beliefs (We influence other people’s behavior in ways that make them confirm our stereotypes) 14. Darley & Gross (2003) had participants watch a video of a girl named Hannah taking an academic ability test.  What differed between the conditions? Told that she came from a high or low SES background Participants who were told that she came from a high SES background rated her academic ability as above grade-level and remembered the questions she got right. The exact opposite for low SES condition! (Socioeconomic status)  What were the findings of this study? When we’re observing others, we interpret their behavior in ways that fit our stereotypes 15. What is subtyping? According to Fiske et al.’s (2009) research, what purpose does subtyping serve? Subtyping is when someone violates a stereotype, we tend to subtype them into a category of their own. 16. Pronin, Lin, & Ross (2003) conducted a series of studies in which they asked Stanford students to rate their susceptibility to cognitive biases (e.g., self-serving bias, halo effect) .

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 Did Stanford students rate themselves as more or less susceptible to cognitive biases than the "average American"?  Did Stanford students rate themselves as more or less susceptible to cognitive biases than other Stanford students?  In Study 2, did Stanford students rate themselves as more or less susceptible to other kinds of personal limitations (e.g., fear of public speaking, procrastination) than other Stanford students?  Pronin, Lin, & Ross's (2003) findings illustrate what concept? Stanford students rated their susceptibility to biases as lower than the average American and their partners. they did not change their opinion after learning about self protective bias. Naïve realism: the belief that one's own perception of the world is objectively accurate, and if others see something differently, they must be biased. Racial Essentialism: 17. Define essentialism : The belief that some social categories are fixed and reflect inherent, unchanging properties that make members who they are race and gender (primary categories) psychological process of ascribing deep, hidden, unchanging properties to a social group 18. Complete the following quote by Rubio (2001) regarding race as a social construct: “Race is a biological fiction , but a social fact .”  Racial essentialism: the belief that race is a fundamental and meaningful source of human division that has an inherent, inalterable biological basis (Chao et al., 2013) 19. Provide one historical example which illustrates that racial categories are arbitrary and fluid. 1. In the early 1900s, Irish, Italian, and Jewish immigrants to the U.S. were considered non- White; now, these ethnicities are considered White (Richeson & Sommers, 2016) 2. Some states in Jim Crow America defined races by law; people could petition the court to change their racial identity (usually from non-White to White) (Bans & Eberhardt, 1998) 3. Until 9/11/2001, Arab Americans were most often categorized as White in the U.S., but are usually considered non-White now (Perez & Hirschman, 2010) 20. What point did researchers like Khanna & Harris (2009) illustrate through having people try “race-sorting” exercises? It's critical to understand that phenotype is not a reliable marker of socially defined racial groups + we arent good at racial perception (instead we pick up race from social cues) 21. What did Noymer et al. find in their 2011 study on death certificates? What does this demonstrate regarding how people categorize others into racial groups? Noymer found that that someone died of cirrhosis of the liver makes it more likely that they will be categorized as a Native American. This demonstrates that we arent good at racial perception

22. Chao, Hong, & Chiu (2013) asked participants to divide sets of photos (3 photos in each set) into two groups. What differences did they find between participants who were high vs. low in racial essentialism beliefs? Categorized people based on race + they engaged in hypodescent (Some famous behavior genetics researchers today endorse beliefs that Black people are genetically predisposed to be less intelligent than White people) 23. Define hypodescent : The tendency to categorize multiracial or racially ambiguous people as non-White 24. What was the main finding of Chen et al.'s (2018) Experiment 2? Photos of Black- White multiracial individuals were most often categorized as a non-Black ethnic/racial minority Gender Essentialism: 25. What is the gender binary? The system in which society splits its members into one of two sets of gender roles, identities, and attributes, based on sex assigned at birth 26. Define the following terms:  Sex assigned at birth: anatomical and physiological features  Gender identity: a person’s gendered sense of self  Gender expression: the performance of gender in bodily actions such as voice, posture, movement, clothing, etc. 27. Why was Bem’s Sex Role Inventory important for the psychology of gender? Back then, People were measured on a single continuum from masculine to feminine BUT Bem’s work opened the door for a lot of ideas, including queer theory, to become part of mainstream psychology of gender 28. Provide a real-world example of androcentrism . Androcentrism: The propensity to center society around men and men’s needs, priorities, and values. The positioning of men as the gender-neutral standard while marking women as gender-specific or deviant. EXAMPLE: 29. According to Hyde’s (2005) review of 46 meta-analyses on psychological differences between men and women, approximately 78% of differences were small or near zero in size. 30. What are the consequences of exaggerating gender differences that we discussed in class (see last few slides of gender essentialism PowerPoint)? It creates inequalities, varies by situation/scenario.  Men are less likely to seek mental health treatment  Men score lower in mental health literacy (MHL) and higher in self-stigma. This is exacerbated by self and parental endorsement of traditional gender roles

 Differences in diagnoses between cisgender women and men  Reinforces stereotypes that women are nurturing and men are not, which contributes to workplace inequalities  Mathematically talented girls are overlooked by parents and teachers  Differences in math achievement between girls and boys have disappeared in the U.S., but not differences in beliefs about ability  Boys’ emotional needs are neglected by parents and teachers Legitimizing Ideologies & Individual Differences: 31. For each of the following dimensions of right-wing authoritarianism, list an item that you might use to measure that dimension.  Submission: How likely one is in following the dominant system follow leaders/head government blindly  Aggression (towards people who deviate from social norms): Frequency and intensity of the attack use tough force and firmness to deal with criminals  Conventionalism : One's behaviors (following conventionalism would be not to do drugs) young people need to stop experimenting with drugs/sex/alcohol and follow traditional values to better the country  32. Which ideological attitude involves a preference or liking of group hierarchies? What are a few things that someone who scores high in this attitude might say ? Social dominance theory; whether people prefer a class difference; fixates competition 33. Guimond et al. (2003) measured social dominance orientation (SDO) among first- year psychology and pre-law students, and among third- and fourth-year psychology and pre-law students.  How did first-year psychology and pre-law students differ in their SDO scores? Ideological attitudes reflect both  How did third- and fourth-year psychology students’ SDO scores compare to their first-year counterparts? Ideological attitudes reflect both  How did third- and fourth-year pre-law students’ SDO scores compare to their first-year counterparts? Ideological attitudes reflect both  What general point does the findings of this study illustrate? More diverse countries have lower level to prejudice 34. What are some differences between RWA and SDO in terms of what they focus on and their contributing factors (look at the chart and diagram)? RWA focuses on individual hierarchies and following authority figures while SDO focuses on group hierarchies Similarities: (bonus) 1. Both involve a preoccupation with hierarchies

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2. Both are individual differences 3. Both are correlated generalized prejudice exhibited towards various social groups 35. What is the core belief(s) that characterize the Protestant Work Ethic (PWE)? 36. What is a dominant narrative? List the 3 ways we discussed in which a dominant narrative achieves dominance . Dominant narrative: explanation/story that is told in the dominant group's perspective or group interest/ideology 37. Why was system justification theory developed? (Hint: what seemingly counter- intuitive finding were researchers trying to explain?). the process of legitimizing/justifying social arrangements; developed so people can justify the system in which they live in 38. What are 4 individual differences that make it more likely that someone will engage in system justification? 1. Need for order and structure 2. Need for cognitive closure 3. Low openness to experience 4. Perception of the world as a dangerous place 39. What are the 4 consequences of system justification that we discussed? 1. Opposition to change 2. Outgroup favoritism among disadvantaged 3. Victim blaming 4. Victim enhancement 40. What did Feygina et al. (2011) do/find in their studies on system justification and commitment to pro-environmental action? System of justification theory; when someone says there is a threat to the environment, people are most likely to say there isn't

Religion: 41. How does extrinsic religiosity and intrinsic religiosity differ in terms of how they are expressed or displayed in everyday life? 42. Write a "+" or "-" sign to indicate whether each of the following types of religiosity are positively or negatively correlated with prejudice .  Religious identification: + Religious identification: the strength of religiosity  Religious fundamentalism: + ( the belief that there is one set of religious teachings that clearly contain the inerrant truth about humanity and deity; unwavering and unquestioning certainty in those teachings)  Extrinsic religiosity: + ( the use of religion to achieve non-religious goals)  Intrinsic religiosity: - ( sincere belief in the religion’s teachings and seeking to live one’s life according to the religion; religion as an end in itself)  Quest: - (a view of religiosity as a search for answers to questions about the meaning of life) 43. Which of the above types of religiosity shares a particularly strong link with RWA (particularly the conventionalism dimension)? Religiosity and RWA are positively correlated. Pretty much every religious group has been the target of prejudice at one point in history (RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM) Intergroup Relations: 44. What are some of the "problems" or limitations of social identity theory? Mere categorization is rare in real life, social groups are often competiting for resources. Mere categorization does not produce outgroup hostility 45. What did Vanneman & Pettigrew find in their 1972 study regarding the associations between personal relative deprivation vs. group relative deprivation and prejudice? Personal relative deprivation doesn't affect prejudice while group relative deprivation increases prejudice; White Americans believed that they had more economic gains than Black Americans 46. Does group relative gratification increase or decrease prejudice? Why? Increase; system justification (people feel the need to justify their advantages) 47. What are the main principles of realistic conflict theory? According to this theory, why do people dislike members of outgroups? People are motivated to maximize the rewards they get in life; people join groups to make it easier to get rewards 48. In Sherif’s Robber’s Cave summer camp study, what was “key” to reducing prejudice between the two rival groups of campers? Had students work towards a common goal 49. King et al. (2010) conducted a study in which they had psychology students pretend to be HR (human resources) representatives.

 How did they manipulate resource scarcity versus abundance? Had White students evaluate job applicants as pretend HR (read an essay which suggested that there was either a good or bad outlook for the company/American economy in the next few years) representatives  How did the conditions differ in how they evaluated the White man's application? Biased, based on their beliefs.  How did the conditions differ in how they evaluated the Latina woman's application? More biased 50. Vaughn and colleagues (2015) conducted research in which they primed participants with either resource scarcity or resource abundance, and then had them categorize photos of other people. When primed with resource scarcity…  Were heterosexual participants more or less likely to classify others as heterosexual?  Were sexual minority participants more or less likely to classify others as a sexual minority?  What concept do these findings illustrate? 51. Define a zero-sum outlook. Gain from one side results in a loss from the other side 52. What are some examples of tangible vs. cultural resources? What emotions are associated with competition for tangible resources? What emotions are associated with competition for cultural resources?  tangible resources- physical items (cash)  cultural resources- cultures are competing for resources 53. Integrated threat theory ties together the ideas of three theories, showing there are multiple routes from social categorization to prejudice. What are those three theories? 1. Social identity theory 2. Relative deprivation theory 3. Realistic conflict theory Child Development: 54. What did Bandura have children do in his famous Bobo doll experiment? What specific concept did his findings illustrate? What did Bandura have children do in his famous Bobo doll experiment? What theory/concept did his findings illustrate? Children were more likely to hurt a Bobo doll because they saw an adult exhibit that behavior; social learning theory  In phase 1: Experimenter brings child into room and seats them in one corner with toys, Adult “model” (confederate) in other corner with different set of toys including Bobo doll

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and mallet. Model either (1) acted aggressively towards a Bobo doll OR (2) did not play/interact with the doll  In phase 2: Experimenter brings child into another room with trucks, dolls, spinning top, etc.  In phase 3: Experimenter brings child back into original room and leaves the child alone for 20 minutes with ALL the toys to see what they will do  Children who observed the aggressive model were much more likely to engage in physical and verbal aggression towards the doll, imitating the behavior of the model (and even finding new ways to attack the doll) | Observational learning: children learn through imitating the attitudes and behaviors of others 55. What is the difference between a live model and a symbolic model according to social learning theory? Live model: actual person demonstrating the behavior (son sees his dad shaving) Symbolic model: fictional character demonstrates behavior (robin hood steals from the poor) 56. What is vicarious reinforcement? If we see someone being punished for something, we are less likely to do that behavior (having a cookie taken away for a messy room makes us want to keep a clean room) 57. Provide a real-life example of each of the following types of genotype- environment correlations.  Active: (genotype-environment correlation) children actively seek out environments that are compatible with their genotype (“niche-picking”)  Evocative: (genotype-environment correlation) environmental responses to a child is shaped by their disposition/genotype  Two key ingredients of effortful thinking: • Motivation • Ability Short Answer Question (word-for-word from the exam!): Short Answer Instructions: Respond to the following prompt using approximately 4-6 sentences total. (8 pts) We discussed three models of intersectionality in class— 1. The double jeopardy model: i s the theory that the various factors of one's identity that lead to discrimination or oppression, such as gender, class, or race, have a multiplicative effect on the discrimination that person experiences

 Disadvantage and discrimination adds up or accrues with each subordinate group identity 2. The subordinate male target hypothesis:  Social Dominance Theory (SDT) is a broader theorical framework proposed by Sidanius and Pratto in 1999  Asserts that group members with a single devalued identity often bear the brunt of discrimination targeting their group  Research on this idea has focused on men of color or men with minority sexual orientations 3. The intersectional invisibility model:  People with 2 or more subordinate identities experience “intersectional invisibility” (Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2008)  The general failure to recognize them as members of their constituent groups  Because they are not seen as prototypical members of those groups  Suggests that prototypical members of marginalized groups will face the most overt and active discrimination  However, the needs, concerns, and experiences of non-prototypical members will be pushed to the side or completely ignored ESSAY QUESTION: Compare and contrast these 3 models/perspectives in terms of the kind(s) and extent of discrimination that people with a single marginalized identity versus multiple marginalized identities are expected to face.  All three models are known to have their disadvantages, ultimately leading to discrimination due to an individuals marginalized identity. Although all models experience discrimination, the disadvantages vary; this includes whether an individual has single or multiple marginalized identities. In the double jeopardy model people with multiple subordinate group identities suffer, making them more vulnerable to prejudice. The subordinate male target hypothesis proposes that minority males are anticipated/expected to be more biased than women. Lastly, the intersectional invisibility model is targeted towards individuals with multiple marginalized identities, these people struggle to be known or represented. Therefore, it's the most recognizable form of oppression. People with multiple identities are bound to face more/severe discrimination than single marginalized identity. Ultimately marginalization occurs due to unequal power and social groups.

PSYC 207 Exam 1 Study Guide

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