PLCY-702 Module 4 Annotated Bibliogrpahy

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LIBERTY UNIVERSITY HELMS SCHOOL OF GOVERNMENT An Annotated Bibliography for the Purpose of Familiarizing Students with Formatting and ProQuest’s RefWorks Submitted to Dr. Troy Gibson in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of PLCY-702 Founding Era and the Constitution by Albert Nieves xx xx April 13, 2023

1 Annotated Bibliography In 2019 the United States provided $47 billion dollars in foreign assistance to 233 countries/regions in an effort to address policy needs. These funds were expended by executing over thirteen thousand activities. 1 Unfortunately, determining policy efficacy or the return on investment of policy aimed at currying favor, strengthening international relationships, or building partner capacity is nearly impossible. While in some cases these inabilities can be attributed to government inefficiencies or politics, it is my opinion that in this case, the primary obstacle is the sheer size of the program. The policy goal I would most like to see accomplished is a consolidation and restructuring of these programs with an increased effort towards accountability for expenditures and results. 1 Department of State and USAID 2021, https://www.foreignassistance.gov/

2 Armitage, D. (1999). Greater Britain: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis? The American Historical Review , 104 (2), 427–445. https://doi.org/10.2307/2650373 In his article "Greater Britain: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis?" Armitage researches a rarely used concept called the idea of " Greater Britain " . The author seeks to measure the ability of the term to appropriately frame the relationship between the former empire and the coloni es of the as an impactful era in the history of the “ n N ew w W orld ” . In By using the term Greater Britain, Armitage is refer referring s to the former British colonies English language speaking colonies of the British Empire such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States . The author and s s uggests that the relationship with these colonies were pivotal in the formation of Britain’s its n n ational identity and in setting the mold for the empire’s national foreign policy towards a people not considered its peer. . The author admits the term requires further refining, and that as i i t has caused confusion in the past . , However; Armitage but is firm in his conviction that the allows the concept has merit and the potential to become as a key source in the analysis of British international relations. Armitage believes that before the term Greater Britain can be better defined, he must strengthen it by develop ing a mechanism for filtering and categorizing the important differences between the various nations and the complex power dynamics that shaped their relationships with Britain. Th e actions detailed in the is article seems to prove themselves itself a monumental task for to the author, and with Armitage insinuat es ing that the term is its more of concept for further exploration than a concrete reference. Regardless, the article is an asset for foreign policy a research e e r s. into the foreign policy practices of the United States. A A rmitage’s explanation of a potential "Greater Britain" provides another lens through which to look at the factors affecting the colonialists and the complexities of imperial relationships. The manner in which the colonial representatives had to

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3 deal with these challenges set the framework for future foreign policy culture summarized in the citations below. Beale, H.K. (1942). The Spanish-American War and American Foreign Policy, 1895- 1902, The American Historical Review , Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 427-444. In "The Spanish-American War and American Foreign Policy, 1895-1902” Beale conducts an in-depth analysis of the causal factors leading to of the Spanish-American War. Beale also takes the opportunity to discuss the result ing ant political culture and the impact that both the war and the aftermath had on United States foreign policy in the days following. following the war. The author explores the Spanish colony of Cuba and discusse s d the political and economic realities facing the nation , and how they factored into the growing tensions between Spain and the young republic of the United States. In addition to American fiscal interests, Beal cites an infringement of Cuban human rights that caught the attention of American activists, politicians and subsequently the media press. For now, we will label this feeling to need to act as a national ideology or morals, but in the citations below, the reader will find more concrete examples of these values later in U.S. foreign policy initiatives. The top down top-down pressure, and synchronized with bottom-up pressure generated by the media s proved pivotal in the public’s acceptance of war. It was a transformation in the young country’s history. Turning to foreign policy, the author explores the dynamic transformation of United States foreign policy. Beale asserts that the war marked a distinctive pivot towards a more assertive and interventionist American foreign policy. He also observed an increased desire to possess and use , over the horizon or “blue water” naval power to establish and protect overseas territories. The article’s useful to wards research is because it is based on its detailed and insightful analysis of a pivotal conflict and provides a nd the result of its a plethora of lessons learned on U.S. the political climate back i in response to the war n the nation’s Capital .

4 . Chapman, Michael E. “Pragmatic, Ad Hoc Foreign-Policy Making of the Early Republic: Thomas H. Perkins’s Boston–Smyrna–Canton Opium Model and Congressional Rejection of Aid for Greek Independence” 35, no. 3. The International History Review 35 (2013): 449–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2013.795498 In an effort to provide geographic diversity, (later citations will focus on Latin America) , this author presents an article exploring the early foreign policy of the American republic as it relate s d to the Mediterranean. Chapman’s article highlights covers several examples of the pragmatism in early policy, with a focus on such as the role of Thomas H. Perkins and his involvement in the opium trade between Boston, Smyrna Greece, and Canton Italy. Chapman, ties Perkins' pragmatic approach to foreign policy driven by economic and influence, as attested to by Randall below. , later in this bibliography. Chapman cites Perkin’s support for the Greek independence movement, which was which is widely considered to be driven by a desire to expand American influence and secure economic opportunities in the region. Chapman claims that the force opposing pragmatism in Congress was an ideological and moralistic world view , and that this conflict was the greatest challenge to in early U.S. Foreign Policy. This article proves itself useful for its insightful analysis of the complex factors that directed the tug of war happening amongst policy makers. Chapman softens the claim of the negative impact made by policy characteristics driven by economic interests, global power, and ideological considerations. Johnson, A.S (2011). Early American Perceptions of Korea and Washington’s Korea Policy, 1882-1905. Korea Journal. , 51 (4), 110–131. https://doi.org/10.25024/kj.2011.51.4.110 Johnson examines the United States' relationship with Korea in the 19th and 20th centuries. The author Johnson argues that in the short 25-year span , defined in his article,

5 American policy regarding the Republic of Korea w as ere driven by a strategy to manage a critical relationship with China, Korea’s geographical location, and the economic incentives a new market for American goods would provide. Additionally Additionally, he claims that , America’s Korea policy was influenced by the United States' relationship with Japan as well. Washington D.C. The United States sought was looking to manage China’s growing influence in the region , and Japan was played a key role in the antagonist’s containment. Johnson affirms the thoughts of many authors cited in this bibliography by when he claim ing s that Washington's Korea policy in the late 19 th century was driven by the desire to maintain influence in the region, the desire to increase America’s economic interests in the region, and the ideology that the United States was morally obligated to help Korea resist foreign encroachment. Johnson's article, combined with Randall’s Latin America policy points, and Chapman’s Mediterranean policy points, potentially cements the three greatest factors motivating early US policy throughout the world. Perkins, B. (1994). Interests, Values, and the Prism: The Sources of American Foreign Policy. Journal of the Early Republic , 14 (4), 458–466. https://doi.org/10.2307/3124468 In the article “Interests, Values, and the Prism” Perkins carefully examens the most significant factors influencing the United States foreign policy authorities and their decision making s . Attributing the world’s only hyper - power’s foreign policy structure to a complex worldview and conflicting special interests and values , . P P erkins also delves deeper into the values that shape Americ a a n foreign policy. The author opens his reporting by evaluating what is meant by the term National Interest. A subjective concept at best, Perkins concludes that in the end , that the term national interest is extremely difficult to define. The author’s candid confirmation of these trouble areas proves valuable to in research focused on foreign policy and the allocation of resources towards implementing said that policy. Perkins continues to argue that

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6 balance between interests and values is frequently found in a set of compromises resulting in a prism of policy. A set of beliefs and assumptions influencing policymaker’s decisions, the prism becomes the looking glass that eventually shapes United States foreign policy. The author’s deliberate analysis of the complex factors shaping American foreign policy , is beneficial to r my r esearch by providing a n behind the scenes look at the obstacles that challenge a comprehensive policy , that a imed at balanc ing es conflicting special interests and values, and as a result, indirectly efficient and effective foreign aid. Randall, S.J. (2003). The Tragedy of American Diplomacy Revisited: U.S. Relations with Latin America and the Caribbean. Latin American Research Review 38 (2), 167- 179. doi:10.1353/lar.2003.0023 . Randall’s submission to the Latin American Research Review is one of three articles an in this bibliography other article focusing on the U.S. foreign policy towards Latin America and the Caribbean. Th ere are three such is is the third peer-reviewed journal submission s detailing policy efforts focused in the western hemisphere , but because this is because Latin America is this authors ’ area of interest expertise . Randall summarize summarizes d William Appleman Williams' well-known book titled "The Tragedy of American Diplomacy." In his book Williams argues that policy makers are too often motivated by economic interests and a desire for global prominence or dominance, rather than a commitment to democratic values and human rights. Williams becomes the is the second author in this bibliography citing these views , and . doesn’t dispute him. Randall changes the vernacular , but maintains the sentiment by suggesting that these same policies, focused on the Americas and the Caribbean , have been characterized by a long history of interventionism, exploitation, and a disregard for local sovereignty and autonomy. Expanding on Williams’ arguments regarding economic policy motivators, he cites access to natural resources and financial markets, as well as ideological and strategic concerns as well.

7 Randall’s article proves useful to researchers by building on, explaining , and confirming Williams’ critique of U.S. foreign policy towards Latin America and the Caribbean. These critiques , although difficult to hear, provide the roadmap for increasing the effectiveness of future policy initiatives , potentially drafted by PLCY 702 candidates in the near future. Robey, J. S. (2009). America's backyard: the United States and Latin America from the Monroe Doctrine to the War on Terror. Choice, 47 (4), 765. https://go.openathens.net/redirector/liberty.edu?url=https://www.proquest.com/trade- journals/americas-backyard-united-states-latin-america/docview/225708299/se-2 Robey produces an article focused on reviewing United States and Latin America’s interaction. The author spans the relations and takes the reader from the early days of the Monroe Doctrine to the Global War on Terror in the early 2000s. The author Robey provides the reader a comprehensive account of the history of US-Latin American relations throughout th e indicated at period and declares that region has long been seen and referred to as the United States’ backyard. While the term is may be offensive to some of its neighbors , it is inarguable that the region is important to US economic and security interests. It is no surprise to Robey that the United States has sought to maintain its influence in the region , o r global ly for that matter . Another well-known fact is that at times, U . S . policy h as has communicated the desire to maintain dominance in the hemisphere, however , ; has not appropriately prioritized the region. The author dissects the key issues shaping shaped US-Latin American relations to include the Banana Wars, Cuban Revolution, the Mexican-American War, the Spanish-American War, and the War on Drugs. Robey also provides examples and cursory evaluation of the various strategies the super power utilizes to leverage influence in the region. Robey provides a Latin

8 American perspective on US-Latin American relations, providing a historical timeline of the negative impacts of American policies in the region. “America's Backyard” provides a history lesson of past interaction and a path to successfully overcoming challenges facing US-Latin American relations today. Sanchez, J.P. (2020), Denaturalizing the Monroe Doctrine: The rise of Latin American legal anti-imperialism in the face of the modern US and hemispheric redefinition of the Monroe Doctrine. Leiden Journal of International Law, 33 (3), 541-555. https://doi.org/10.1017/S092215652000031X The corner stone of early United States policy regarding Latin America is the Monroe Doctrine. In the early twentieth centuries the policy began to be redefined themselves as the policy of Pan-Americanism as well as a particular type of policy prevalent throughout Central America and the Caribbean , was considered to be based on interventionist. The natural evolution of such policies were a birthing of anti-imperialism responses in the form of and the the development of laws to protect the region’s citizen’s and their sovereignty. In his article, Sanchez examines this evolution and its impact on the political science discourse in the western hemisphere. The author presents a compelling case, claiming that although the Monroe Doctrine was meant to secure the western hemisphere from European intervention, but that the United States has leveraged the policies to justify its interventionist policies in the region. The article explores how the countries south of the new republic have responded to the Monroe Doctrine , and how over time , their laws have developed to confront the U.S. imperialism and the regional redefinitions of the doctrine. Like other articles cited in this bibliography , this article is useful in that it provides another set of perspectives and prejudices with which to evaluate the

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9 effectiveness of US foreign policy given a historical account. The logical course of action is to would then be to incorporate th es os e lessons learned into today’s foreign policy, but ; the preponderance of the evidence indicates that this will is not be the case going forward. currently. The causes of this hesitancy to follow logical sequencies are outside of the scope of this assignment, however, t T his author has been blessed to work in both the planning and execution of foreign aid aimed at maintaining the United States’ primacy as the partner of choice for Latin American countries. The unsureness of the return on investment of this endeavor is a motiving factor for his pursuing a Policy degree , and . T t his article’s counter-US talking points provides great insight on the mindset of those which the US seeks to befriend. In conclusion, there are more conversation that need to occur.