Test 1 Essay Questions

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1. Explain the basic variants of liberal theory. How might a Hobbesian state of nature explain Liberal cooperation? How might a Lockean state of nature explain Liberal cooperation? How does the Prisoner’s dilemma apply to liberal cooperation? Explain Kant’s theory for how Perpetual Peace can be developed over time (does he believe in a Hobbesian or Lockean view of human nature? What are the specifics of his plan? Explain the roles of republicanism and federation in great detail. Explain the basic variants of liberal theory.  Liberal theory focuses on our own individual freedom, equality, and the protection of our individual rights as fundamental principles for organizing societies. There are several basic variants of liberal theory. Some of the basic variants of liberal theory include:  Ideational liberalism emphasizes the similarity of social preferences across collective goods such as national unity, legitimate political institutions, and socioeconomic regulation. This ideational liberalism also focuses on state behavior, such as conflict and compatibility between collective social values and identities that pertain to the scope and nature of the provisions of public goods.  Commercial liberalism emphasizes the incentives produced by opportunities for transborder economic transactions. Commercial liberalism also focuses on the impact on a state’s behavior of gains and losses to individuals and groups in the society of transnational economic interchange.  Republican liberalism emphasizes the nature of domestic representation and the possibilities for rent-seeking behavior. Republican liberalism generates predictions where conflicting policies establish high costs and risks for most of the people who live in domestic societies.  Classical liberalism emphasizes limited government intervention in the economy and society. They believe in individual liberty, private property rights, free markets, and the pursuit of self-interest. They argue that a free and competitive market leads to economic prosperity and personal freedom.  Social liberalism is also known as modern or welfare liberalism. Social liberalism came about in response to the social challenges of the Industrial Revolution. Social liberals, such as John Stuart Mill and Franklin D. Roosevelt, support a more active role for government to ensure social justice, reduce inequality, and provide a safety net for citizens. They advocate for policies such as public education, healthcare, and progressive taxation to create equal opportunities and protect vulnerable individuals. How might a Hobbesian state of nature explain Liberal cooperation?  Hobbes’ view of the state of nature is a hypothetical condition characterized by a lack of government or authority where people are in a constant state of conflict and competition. It serves as a foundation for liberal cooperation by focusing on the importance of having a social contract, the role of government in providing security and stability to Americans, the rule of law, and the protection of our rights as a way for us to escape the state of nature's perpetual conflict. How might a Lockean state of nature explain Liberal cooperation?

According to Locke, the state of nature helps us understand how a liberal thought regarding politics can help explain cooperation among individuals in society. His view on the state of nature is a hypothetical situation where people exist without authority or a central government, compared to Hobbes belief that it was more of a condition than a situation. In summary, a Lockean state of nature is the foundation of his view on liberal cooperation because it highlights the importance of our natural rights, social contract, limited government, rule of law, and property rights as important components of our society where we can cooperate for our mutual benefit as a way of preserving our freedom and our rights as Americans. How does the Prisoner’s dilemma apply to liberal cooperation?  The Prisoner’s Dilemma is a concept that creates a situation where two people who are both pursuing their own self-interest may not cooperate, even though cooperation would lead to a better outcome for both individuals. The prisoner's dilemma establishes norms, rules, and institutions that aim to reduce the risk of defection and enhance the candidates chances of successful cooperation in areas of mutual interest. Explain Kant’s theory for how Perpetual Peace can be developed over time.  Kant's theory of perpetual peace can be found in his essay “Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch," where he proposes three main ideas. a. Republican Constitutions: Kant believed that governments should be based on Republican principles that have a system of checks and balances. He believed this would promote the rule of law, protect our rights as American citizens, and reduce the possibility of conflict. b. League of Nations: In his essay, Kant proposed that a League of Nations be established, which would be a modern version of international organizations such as the United Nations. He believed this would solve disputes peacefully while also promoting collective security. c. Cosmopolitan Rights: Kant made the suggestion of cosmopolitan rights, which means that we as individuals that come from different countries have certain universal rights. Does Kant believe in a Hobbesian or Lockean view of human nature?  Kant’s theory of perpetual peace is based on a non-Hobbesian view of human nature. He believed that we are not inherently evil or driven solely by self-interest, as Hobbes believed. He leaned more towards a Lockean view of human nature and said that we have the capacity for reason and moral judgment. He believed that perpetual peace could be achieved by having a republican government, a league of nations, and recognizing that we have the right to cosmopolitan rights. Explain the roles of republicanism and federation in great detail.

 Republicanism is a set of political principles that advocate for a system of government where our country is considered to be a public matter and the head of state is an elected official rather than a hereditary monarch. o Role  Eradication of Monarchy: Republicanism plays an important role in the eradication of monarchies in many countries. Republicanism stands in opposition to the idea of having a hereditary monarchy, and it advocates for the selection of governmental leaders based on merit or democratic processes.  Promotion of Civic Virtue: Republicanism emphasizes the importance of having civic virtue, where we are encouraged to participate in the political process, promote the common good, and be engaged in the affairs of the state.  Checks and Balances: There is a system of checks and balances in republics in order to prevent the concentration of power. This helps make sure that nobody becomes too influential or authoritarian.  Democratic Governance: Republicanism is linked to democratic principles, where republics involve regular elections and techniques to let citizens have a say in their government, which fosters a sense of political accountability.  A federation is a political structure that gives a central government the opportunity to share power with constituent political units, such as states or provinces. This allows each level of government to have its own set of powers and regulations. o Role:  Distribution of Power: The Federation was designed to distribute power between a central authority and substantial entities. This is crucial in large and diverse countries because it allows for regional autonomy within a unified framework.  Preservation of Diversity: Federations accommodate various cultural, linguistic, and regional differences. This offers a way to protect minority rights and regional identities by granting a degree of self- governance.  Stability and Unity: Federations provide stability by letting regions have a say in their affairs while remaining part of a larger political entity.  Flexibility: Federal systems can adapt to changing circumstances easier than governments that are highly centralized. This often allows for experimentation with policies at higher levels.  Examples of federations include the United States, Canada, Australia, Germany, and India.  In conclusion, republicanism focuses on the importance of having elected leadership and citizen engagement, whereas federation focuses on how power is distributed in ways that accommodate diversity while also promoting unity.

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2. Summarize the Democratic Peace Theory. How does it build on Kant’s theory of republicanism? How might it be explained given a Hobbesian view of human nature? How might it be explained given a Lockean view of human nature? What are some critiques of Democratic Peace Theory? Do you find these critiques to be valid? Summarize the Democratic Peace Theory  A democracy is a form of government where power lies with the people, who participate in decision-making through voting and other democratic processes. In a democracy, leaders are chosen by the citizens. The Democratic Peace Theory states that countries that have democracies are less likely to go to war with each other due to several reasons, such as their preference for peace, the presence of checks and balances, shared values, and a tendency to engage in diplomatic negotiations. o First off, governments that have democracies in place are more likely to give thought to the will of their citizens, who usually prefer peace and stability over conflict. Leaders in democracies are accountable to their constituents and are motivated to avoid actions that could potentially lead to war. o Second, countries that have democracies in place usually have a system of checks and balances in place, such as independent judiciaries and legislative bodies. This guarantees that decisions regarding war and peace are subject to careful examination and debate. This allows restraints to be put on leaders who might be prepared to put aggressive actions in place. o Lastly, the Democratic Peace Theory has democratic norms and institutions. Democracies usually have a common set of values and principles in place, such as respect for human rights and the rule of law. These shared values can build trust and cooperation between democratic nations, which can reduce the possibility of conflict. How does the Democratic Peace Theory build on Kant’s theory of republicanism?  The Democratic Peace Theory builds on Kant’s theory of republicanism by having a deeper examination of the connection between democracy and peace. Kant’s theory helps us understand the potential for peace in democratic nations, and the Democratic Peace Theory examines the factors that contribute to the accountability of leaders to their citizens and the role of democratic norms and institutions. How might the Democratic Peace Theory e explained given a Hobbesian view of human nature?  According to Hobbes, we are interested in ourselves and are driven by our desires for power, security, and survival. In a Hobbesian view of human nature, we are in a constant state of competition and conflict, seeking to secure our own interests at the expense of other people. Hobbes’ argument was that if we are driven by our self-interests and are motivated to pursue power, it is unlikely that democracies, where power is shared among

the people, would prioritize peace and avoid conflicts. A Hobbesian perspective of the Democratic Peace Theory is the result of democratic governance that provides a system that prioritizes self-preservation, stability, and security. By having checks and balances, democratic norms, and institutions, democracies can have the possibility of overcoming the self-interest and competition found in Hobbes’ view of human nature, which can reduce the possibility of developing conflicts. How might the Democratic Peace Theory be explained in a Lockean view of human nature?  According to Locke, we are born with natural rights, including the rights to life, liberty, and property. He believed that we have the capacity to govern ourselves and make decisions in regard to our best interests, as long as we respect the rights of other people. According to Locke’s view of human nature, we have a desire for self-preservation, but we also have respect for the rights and well-being of others. From a Lockean point of view, the Democratic Peace Theory is the result of a democratic government that aligns with the principles of our own individual rights, mutual respect, and the social contract. By upholding these values and providing ways to protect our individual rights, a democratic environment promotes peace, trust, and cooperation between other democratic nations. What are some critiques of Democratic Peace Theory?  There are several critiques of the Democratic Peace Theory which include: o Cherry-picking of data: Some critics argue that the Democratic Peace Theory selectively focuses on historical examples where democracies haven’t gone to war with each other. o Democratic peace by coincidence: Some critics state that the peace between democracies could possibly be a result of other factors, such as economic interdependence, shared cultural values, or a common external threat. o Endogeneity and selection bias: Some critics argue that the observed peace between democracies may be caused by other factors other than democratic governance. They propose that countries that are motivated towards peace are more likely to adopt democratic systems than democracy itself, which can cause peace to exist. o Insufficient sample size: Some critics say that the historical period and number of democracies that are studied in relation to the Democratic Peace Theory could potentially be too limited to produce conclusions. They suggest that expanding the dataset and considering a longer time frame could provide a more accurate assessment of the theory. o Exceptions and counterexamples: Critics point out instances where democracies have engaged in armed conflicts, such as the American Civil War, the Falklands War, or the India-Pakistan conflicts. They argue that these exceptions challenge the theory’s claim that democracies are inherently peaceful. Do you find these critiques to be valid?  I don’t know too much about politics or the Democratic Peace Theory, but from what I’ve learned so far, I would say yes, I do find these critiques to be valid.

3. Explain the theory of constructivism. Expound on your explanation by also answering these questions: In what essential ways does it differ from the other theories we have covered in this unit? Answer this specific question by providing details not just about constructivism, but also about the other theories. Also explain why Huntington believes that constructivism is the best “roadmap” for explaining international politics in today’s world (explain both: why are 7 regions better than 2 or 3 regions, as was the case historically; and, what are the other “roadmaps” that might explain the post-cold war world, and why is his map the best.) Explain the theory of constructivism.  The theory of constructivism helps us understand how people learn and acquire knowledge. It suggests that we actively construct or build our own understanding of the world based on our experiences and interactions. Constructivism is the idea that we, as learners, bring our own existing knowledge, beliefs, and experiences into our learning process. This serves as a foundation for how new information and ideas can be built. This means that our understanding of a certain concept might be slightly different from another person’s perspective on different concepts, as it is shaped by our own unique experiences and perspectives. In what essential ways does the theory of constructivism differ from the other theories we have covered in this unit?  Compared to other theories, such as realism or liberalism, constructivism places a greater emphasis on the role of ideas and norms in shaping international politics. For example, realism focuses on power and self-interest as the defining factors of international relations, while liberalism emphasizes cooperation and interdependence between states. Constructivism, on the other hand, argues that our understanding of power, self-interest, cooperation, and other concepts is socially constructed and can vary across different factors and contexts. One essential difference between constructivism and realism is the role of identity and norms. Constructivism argues that a state’s behavior is influenced not only by material factors, such as military capabilities or economic interests, but also by the shared identity and norms within different societies, whereas realism focuses on a state’s interests. Another important difference between constructivism and liberalism is that liberalism sees international institutions and cooperation as key factors in constructing international relations, whereas constructivism argues that these institutions are also socially constructed and influenced by ideas and norms. Constructivism also emphasizes that the meaning and interpretation of these institutions can vary depending on different factors and societies. Why does Huntington believe that constructivism is the best “roadmap” for explaining international politics in today’s world?  Huntington believes that constructivism is the best “roadmap” for explaining international politics in today’s world because it acknowledges the significance of

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cultural and civilizational differences and recognizes the influence of shared beliefs and values. Incorporating these factors allows constructivism to provide a more in-depth understanding of the complex dynamics of international relations in the post-Cold War era. Why are 7 regions better than 2 or 3 regions?  Huntington states that dividing the world into seven regions is better than historical divisions into two or three regions due to several reasons. Firstly, the world has become more interconnected and diverse regarding cultural identities and civilizational differences. By recognizing and accounting for these diverse cultural backgrounds, a seven-region division provides a more accurate depiction of the complexities of today’s world. Secondly, a seven-region approach would help give a more in-depth analysis of international politics because it acknowledges the dynamics and interactions within different regions by having a more in-depth understanding of specific historical, religious, and cultural factors that help shape the behavior of states and actors. This helps us have a deeper understanding of the conflicts and cooperation in different parts of the world. Divisions that are divided into two or three regions are often based on more ideological or geopolitical considerations, which can overlook the significance of cultural and civilizational differences. By expanding the number of regions, Huntington’s approach recognizes diverse and complex societies by providing a more in-depth understanding of international politics. What are the other “roadmaps” that can help explain the post-cold war world?  In regards to other “roadmaps” that can help explain the post-Cold War world, there are two well-known theories, which are realism and liberalism. Realism focuses on power dynamics and material interests as the main concepts of international politics. This perspective helps emphasize state-centric behavior and strategic calculations but can possibly overlook the influence of cultural and social factors. Whereas liberalism focuses on the role of institutions, norms, and economic interdependence to help shape the field of international relations. This point of view focuses on the importance of ideas, which may downplay cultural and civilizational differences, which Huntington believes are crucial in order to understand the conflicts and cooperation in today’s world. Why is Huntington's map the best?  Huntington believes his constructivist map is the best because it takes into account the increasing significance of cultural and civilizational differences in international politics. By dividing the world into seven regions based on these factors, his approach provides a more in-depth understanding of the complexities and dynamics of the post-Cold War era. It recognizes that states and actors aren’t just driven by material interests or institutional structures, but by their cultural and civilizational backgrounds as well. This allows for a

more in-depth analysis of the different conflicts and different types of cooperation in the landscape of contemporary globalism.