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RAW 5: Review and Write – Immanuel Kant
Ethics
Part I: Assigned Readings: Rachels Chapters 9 and 10 found on D2L
REVIEW DIRECTIONS: For this section, your task is to thoroughly summarize the main points with the supporting details of the topic or argument in the assigned reading sections. You will need to paraphrase the readings into your own words.
Rachels Text: From our provided Rachels textbook, paraphrase and summarize each of the
following sections (each answer should be a minimum of one paragraph):
9.2 The Categorical Imperative:
Kant's ethical theory is grounded in the idea of the categorical imperative, which is an unconditional moral obligation that applies to all rational beings. According to Kant, moral laws must be universal and apply to everyone equally. He argues that there are two formulations of the categorical imperative: the first is the formula of universal law, which states that one should only act according to maxims that one can will to become universal laws. The second formulation is the formula of humanity, which states that one should always treat humanity, whether in oneself or others, as an end in itself and never merely as a means to an
end.
9.3 Kant’s Arguments on Lying:
Kant believes that lying is always wrong, even if it is done with good intentions. He argues that lying undermines the moral law and the principle of respect for persons, as it treats others as mere means to an end rather than ends in themselves. Kant argues that lying is particularly problematic because it undermines trust and undermines the very possibility of communication, which is necessary for moral and social interactions.
9.4 Conflicts between Rules
: Kant acknowledges that there may be conflicts between moral rules, but he argues that there is a way to resolve these conflicts through reason. He believes there are no exceptions to moral rules, but conflicts can be resolved by determining which rule is more fundamental and applies in the situation. Kant argues that the rule that applies in the particular case is the one that is more universal and would be chosen by a rational being in a similar situation.
Chapter 10.1 Kant’s Core Ideas:
Kant's ethical theory is grounded in his belief that morality is based on reason rather than tradition or authority. He argues that the foundation of morality is the
categorical imperative, which is an unconditional moral obligation that applies to all rational beings. Kant believes that moral laws must be universal and apply to everyone equally, and that moral principles are not dependent on the circumstances of an individual situation. For Kant, moral reasoning is a matter of applying the categorical imperative to particular cases, and he argues that moral principles must be derived from reason rather than from tradition or authority.
Source: Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy, Kant’s Moral Philosophy: from this source you must paraphrase and summarize the following sections. (2 paragraph minimum for each answer) https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/
Goodwill, Moral Worth, and Duty:
Kant's moral philosophy is grounded in the idea that moral worth is based on good will, which he defines as the disposition to act from a sense of duty. He argues that actions have moral worth only if they are done from a sense of duty, rather than from inclination or self-interest. According to Kant, duty is determined by moral law, which is a universal principle that applies to all rational beings. Moral law is based on the principle of respect for persons, which requires that we treat all rational beings as ends in themselves and never merely as means to an end. Kant believes that moral worth is the highest value and that it is the only thing that is truly good without qualification. He argues that the good will is the only thing that is intrinsically valuable, and that all other goods are only valuable if they are used for the sake of the good will.
Duty and Respect for Moral Law: Kant believes that moral principles are universal and necessary and that they are based on reason. Moral law is the supreme principle of morality, and it is binding on all rational beings. According to Kant, moral law is based on the principle of respect for persons, which requires that we treat all rational beings as ends in themselves and never merely as means to an end. He argues that moral duties are categorical imperatives, which are unconditional moral obligations that apply to all rational beings. For Kant, moral law is not based on a situation's particular circumstances but on the principle of respect for persons. He believes that moral reasoning is a matter of applying moral law to particular cases, and that moral principles must be derived from reason rather than from tradition or authority. Kant's ethical theory is grounded in the idea that moral worth is based on goodwill, which is the disposition to act from a sense of duty and to follow moral law, regardless of the consequences.
Raw 5 Part II: Immanuel Kant Groundwork of Metaphysics of Morals
General Directions: Section one and section two of this reading can be a challenging read, but don’t get too distracted by the long sentences or jargon. Focus on finding something that interests
you in each area and do your best to explain what Kant is saying about the categorical imperative
and the concepts that are involved. ***This Reading is on D2L***
Text: Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Section I.
Directions: In this part of the text (Section One), Kant defines and clarifies some important concepts. First, find a concept or word that Kant is explaining. Next, as you read the text, identify an important quote from the text that helps to explain the concept and then write down your own explanation about what Kant is claiming. First find a word in the reading you think is a
concept Kant is explaining. Second, find a quote you think defines that word, and finally explain and interpret what you think Kant is claiming in your own words.
Concept
Quote
Your Explanation
Goodwill
"The goodwill is good not because of what it performs or effects, not for its usefulness or advantages, but simply for the volition, that is, it is good in itself, and
considered by itself is to be esteemed much higher than anything it could ever bring about by way of satisfaction or enjoyment"
Kant defines goodwill as a moral concept that refers to the intention behind an action rather than the action itself or its consequences. He argues that goodwill is intrinsically valuable, meaning that
it is good in itself and not because of the outcomes it produces. This quote highlights the idea that the goodness of goodwill is based on the will or intention of the person performing the action, rather than the outcomes or benefits of that action. Kant emphasizes that goodwill should be esteemed higher than anything it could bring about in terms of satisfaction or enjoyment, emphasizing that the intrinsic value of goodwill is of utmost importance.
Duty
"Duty is the necessity of an action from respect for law"
Kant defines duty as an obligation to act in accordance with the moral
law. He argues that moral obligations are not based on our desires or inclinations but are objective and universal. This quote
emphasizes that duty arises from a sense of respect for the moral law, which is based on reason and not on any particular individual's preferences. Therefore, duty is not something that we choose to do, but rather something that we are obligated to do based on rational principles of morality.
Hypothetica
l Imperative
“If the action is good merely as a means to something else, then the imperative is hypothetical; if it is represented as good in itself... then the imperative is Kant distinguishes between two types of imperatives: hypothetical and categorical. Hypothetical imperatives are conditional and
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categorical"
depend on some desired end or goal, whereas categorical imperatives are unconditional and apply to all rational beings. This quote highlights that a hypothetical
imperative is a conditional command that applies only if we desire a particular outcome or goal,
whereas a categorical imperative is
an unconditional command that applies regardless of our individual
desires or goals. Therefore, according to Kant, moral imperatives must be categorical rather than hypothetical, since they
must apply to all rational beings regardless of their individual preferences.
Categorical Imperative
Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law"
The categorical imperative is the central concept in Kant's moral philosophy. It is an unconditional principle that applies to all rational beings, and it requires us to act only in ways that we could will to become universal laws. This quote highlights the idea that we should act only according to maxims, or subjective principles of action, that
we could rationally will to become universal laws. This means that we must consider the implications of our actions for all rational beings, not just ourselves, and act in a way that respects the inherent worth and
dignity of all individuals.
Maxim
"By a maxim I mean a universal principle of action, valid for every rational being"
A maxim is a subjective principle of action that we use to guide our behavior. According to Kant, a maxim is a universal principle of action that is valid for every rational being. This quote highlights the idea that a maxim is a principle that guides our behavior
and is applicable to all rational
beings, not just ourselves. Kant argues that we must act according to maxims that we could will to become universal laws, and that we
must consider the implications of our actions for all rational beings. Therefore, our maxims should be grounded in reason and guided by the categorical imperative, which requires us to act in a way that respects the inherent worth and dignity of all individuals.
Text for this Section: Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Section 2, Part 1.
Description: In this part of the text, Kant uses a lot of technical language. As you read the text, quote sentences from the text that you think are both important and confusing. Underline or circle the words in the quote that you think need some clarification. Next, and
in the 2nd column below, write your best explanation of what you think the sentence means
that you found from the text. Try to include sentences from the text that include the concepts hypothetical imperative and categorical imperative. For the third column, and as you find new material you need to revise your first explanation for each quote into a new explanation after you clarify critically the text. For your revised explanation, you can review sources such as Sparknotes, etc. to help you with the reading. Do not worry if this reading is a little technical and just have fun working with rigor of the text.
Quote from Text
Your Best Explanation
Revised Explanation
"There are even some qualities
which are of service to this good will itself and may facilitate its action, yet which have no intrinsic unconditional
value, but always presuppose a
good will, and this qualifies the esteem that we justly have for them and does not permit Kant is stating that there are some qualities that are helpful
in aiding a good will, but these qualities do not have any intrinsic value on their own. These qualities can only be considered good if they presuppose a good will. In other words, these qualities Kant is referring to the distinction between hypothetical imperatives and categorical imperatives. Hypothetical imperatives are conditional and only have value in relation to a particular end or goal, while categorical imperatives are
us to regard them as absolutely
good."
are only valuable when they are used in service of a good will. Therefore, they cannot be considered absolutely good
in themselves.
unconditional and have value
in and of themselves. The qualities he refers to as being
helpful in aiding a good will are hypothetical imperatives since they are only valuable when they serve the purpose of a good will. However, a good will itself is a categorical imperative since it is valuable in and of itself, without any reference to external goals or ends.
"It is the same with the gifts of fortune. Power, riches, honour, even health, and the general well-being and contentment with one’s condition which is called happiness, inspire pride,
and often presumption, if there
is not a good will to correct the
influence of these on the mind,
and with this also to rectify the
whole principle of acting and adapt it to its end."
Kant is arguing that even the gifts of fortune, such as power, riches, and happiness, can be detrimental if they are not tempered by a good will. If a person lacks a good will, these gifts can lead to pride and presumption, which can distort a person's behavior and
lead them away from their proper end.
Kant is emphasizing that external circumstances such as power, wealth, and happiness are not intrinsically good or valuable
in themselves. Rather, they can become good only if they are used in service of a good will. Without a good will to temper and guide them, these external gifts can
become harmful and destructive.
3.
“A good will is good not because of what it performs or effects, not by its aptness for the attainment of some proposed end, but simply by virtue of the volition; that is, it is good in itself, and considered by itself is to be esteemed much higher than all that can be brought about by it in favour of any inclination, nay even of the sum total of all
inclinations."
Kant is stating that a good will is good in and of itself, regardless of its effects or outcomes. A good will is valuable because it is guided by a moral law, rather than being directed by inclination or self-interest. Therefore, a good will is more valuable than any external end that it might achieve.
Kant is making a distinction between morality and self-
interest. Morality is based on
the concept of the good will, which is intrinsically valuable and worthy of esteem regardless of its outcomes. Self-interest, on the other hand, is based on external goals and outcomes,
which are valued only because they satisfy our inclinations or desires. Kant argues that morality, based on the good will, is a higher and more valuable principle
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than self-interest.
4.
"Even if it should happen that, owing to special disfavour of fortune, or the niggardly provision of a step-motherly nature, this will should wholly lack power to accomplish its purpose, if with its greatest efforts it should yet achieve nothing, and there should remain only the good will (not,
to be sure, a mere wish, but the
summoning of all means in our
power), then, like a jewel, it would still shine by its own light, as a thing which has its whole value in itself."
Kant is arguing that even if a person's good will is unable to
achieve its goals due to external circumstances, it remains valuable in and of itself. The good will is like a jewel that shines by its own light, with value that is independent of external factors.
Kant is emphasizing that the value of the good will is not based on external outcomes or success, but rather on the internal principle of acting according to moral law. The good will has value in and of
itself, regardless of external circumstances, and should be
esteemed as such.
5.
"Unquestionably. It is just in this that the moral worth of the
character is brought out which is incomparably the highest of all, namely, that he is beneficent, not from inclination, but from duty."
This sentence is discussing the concept of moral worth and how it is determined by an individual's motivation for being beneficent. It states that
the highest moral worth comes from being beneficent not because of a natural inclination or desire to do so, but rather because of a sense of duty or obligation to do what is right.
Kant argues that the moral worth of an individual is determined by their motivation for performing a certain action. If someone performs an action purely out
of a sense of duty, even if they have no natural inclination to do so, then that
action has the highest moral worth. In this specific sentence, he uses the example of being beneficent to illustrate this point. If someone is beneficent not because they naturally desire to be so, but rather because they believe it is their duty, then this action has the highest moral worth. This is because they are performing the action purely out of a
sense of obligation to do what is right, rather than because of any personal desire or inclination.
Part III. Reflective Moral Living Essay/Short Answer – Briefly Answer Each Question (1 Paragraph Minimum for Each Question)
1) From our readings so far this semester, pick a theory you would like to work with and describe the theory briefly. Why are you picking the theory? You will use this theory for your analysis in the next question of the essay.
I would like to work with care ethics, which emphasizes the importance of caring relationships and empathy in moral decision-making. This theory prioritizes the well-being of individuals and recognizes the interdependence of people in society. I find this theory interesting because it recognizes the importance of emotions and relationships in moral decision-making, and challenges the traditional focus on individual rights and justice.
2) Apply the theory you chose in question one to an example in your life where you had to make a moral choice. How did you resolve the problem? In contrast, how would the theory you chose affect the outcome of your decision had you used the theory as a resolution. Would your choice change based on the moral theory? Why? Or Why not?
An example in my life where I had to make a moral choice was deciding whether to attend practices during the COVID-19 pandemic. I resolved the problem by deciding not to attend the practices to prioritize the health and safety of myself and others. If I had used care ethics as a resolution, I would have considered the impact of my decision on the well-being of myself and others. I concluded that a caring person would prioritize the health and safety of others by avoiding unnecessary risks. In this case, my choice aligned with the principles of care ethics, as I
acted with empathy and prioritized the well-being of myself and others so no, I do not think that it would change because I already made up my mind on not wanting to make others sick.
3) Create a counter example: Using a different moral theory this semester, how would the resolution change if you applied that different theory to your moral decision?
If I had used utilitarianism instead of care ethics, the resolution of the problem would have been different. Utilitarianism emphasizes the importance of maximizing overall happiness and reducing overall suffering. In this case, I would have considered the potential consequences of attending the practices, such as the risk of spreading COVID-19, and concluded that not going would lead to the greatest overall happiness for everyone as I did not want to make others sick.
4) Finally, Which solution do you think is best? Does one theory provide the best approach, do both theories provide an equal solution, or do neither provide a sufficient resolution? Did it match your actual decision?
In my opinion, both care ethics and utilitarianism offer valid approaches to moral decision-
making. Care ethics emphasize the importance of empathy and relationships, while utilitarianism
emphasizes the importance of maximizing overall happiness. However, I believe that care ethics offers a more nuanced and holistic approach to moral decision-making, as it recognizes the importance of emotions, relationships, and interdependence in society. My actual decision to not attend the practices aligns closer with the principles of care ethics, as I prioritized the well-being of myself and others based on empathy and caring relationships.
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