OBST 800 Reading Assessment Assignment 08-24-2023

docx

School

Liberty University *

*We aren’t endorsed by this school

Course

800

Subject

Philosophy

Date

Oct 30, 2023

Type

docx

Pages

Uploaded by kristophermichaelwilliams

LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY Reading Assessment: Intro to OTB Assignment Submitted to Dr. Michael Graham, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of the course OBST 800-B02 Old Testament Backgrounds by Kristopher Williams 24 August 2023

TABLE OF CONTENTS BEHIND THE SCENES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT…………………………………... 1 THE IVP BIBLE BACKGROUND COMMENTARY: OLD TESTAMENT……………. 10 AGAINST THE GODS……………………………………………………………………. 10 ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN THEMES IN BIBLICAL THEOLOGY………………….. 11 OLD TESTAMENT PARALLELS………………………………………………………... 11 THE BIBLE AMONG THE MYTHS……………………………………………………... 12 PARALLELOMANIA…………………………………………………………………….. 14 ii

Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts Introduction to Historical Geography In the initial reading, “Introduction to Historical Geography,” Paul H. Wright orients students of history to the idea that geography itself is a defining aspect of the events of history, asserting that geographical realities “prompt (and then reprompt) the nature of events” while also being “particularly helpful in our attempt to search out the how and why of the past.” 1 While history is driven by addressing textual material, Wright believes that many historical events, from literal movements of people to cultural developments, can be better understood through reference to the landscapes where the events occurred, thereby offering greater social and material context. Importantly, Wright proposes that geography operates within the sciences, with the idea that objective data can be observed and, when interpreted, offer greater clarification on reasons behind human activities. Therefore, much like biblical exegesis, historical geography operates as “art and science,” with many objective and interpretive data, while also as a subordinate and support for biblical exegesis by providing explanatory items beyond the text. Wright argues that three basic approaches to the use of historical geographical principles dominate the current field. The first he details is “Diachronic Geography,” an approach utilized “to understand the ebb and flow of events over long periods of time,” in which “time, or history, is the organizing principle.” 2 People, and especially political events chronicled in extant literature, is the major focus. A second approach, “Regional Geography,” is one somewhat similar to the diachronic approach in that it also views trends over time, though the difference is that regional geography maintains a “focus on regions or groups of regions and attempt to define 1 Paul H. Wright, “Introduction to Historical Geography,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), 5. 2 Ibid., 10. 1

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version

Access to all documents
Unlimited textbook solutions
24/7 expert homework help

their character over time,” stressing that “ geography is the organizing principle.” 3 Textual evidence remains a major aspect of regional geography, especially those concerning governmental structures and those involving demographics ethnicity. The third approach, “Literary Geography,” is one that seeks to understand the recording of specific information in biblical texts and discern what theological messaging may underlie the inclusion of the data, much of which is dismissed as historically accurate by many modern skeptics. Regions and Routes in the Levant In his chapter in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament , titled “Regions and Routes in the Levant,” Old Testament scholar Carl G. Rasmussen provides readers with an arching overview of the general physical geographical data (topography, rainfall, pasturage, farming, etc.) of the so-called “Fertile Crescent” region, focusing especially on Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Levant (roughly Syria and Israel, from the coast to about 100 miles inland). Rasmussen notes the existence and use of a series of travel routes used in antiquity for trade and military purposes, of which the importance and longevity of the “Great International Trunk Route” is stressed. Observance of maps by students and scholars, while informative, may obscure the “why” behind the existence of the routes taken by ancient peoples. Here, detailed knowledge of the physical strata that helped determine the natural routes of movement helps humanize those of the past by recognizing that their choices were more logical than we may originally believe by simple observance of lines on a map. Modern inventions, such as excavators, bring the natural terrain more under the control of humans; these mechanical devices, of course, did not exist in biblical times, which better explains why people moved through areas less restricted by natural barriers. This realization may help the aspiring student better comprehend why the areas of ancient Israel were fought over by numerous empires as the area occupies a vital trade position 3 Ibid., 10. Emphasis added. 2

and military buffer between Asia, Africa, and to a lesser extent Europe, while offering a relatively fertile area for farming and pasturage. Climate and Environment of the Levant In “Climate and Environment of the Levant,” Elizabeth Arnold presents a case that “examines several key sources of data that are utilized for environmental reconstruction and provides an outline of the environment of the Levant as the setting of the Old Testament.” 4 In the chapter, Arnold covers aspects of climate, whether static or changing through time, across the regions of ancient Palestine in an effort to understand the life settings of various people groups. Arnold recognizes that direct data from thousands of years ago cannot be accessed, so much of the reconstruction of previous environmental conditions rests on proxy data, which is “preserved physical characteristics of the environment of the past that indirectly relate to what scientists wish to study.” 5 Plants and Animals of the Land of Israel In their “Plants and Animals of the Land of Israel,” Daniel Fuks and Nimrod Marom state clearly that their goal is “to provide a basic background to the flora and fauna of ancient Israel from an archaeological perspective.” 6 A particular observation noted by the duo is that, despite its small size, the unique geography of the region helps to explain the diversity of the plant and animal species of the ancient land of Israel witnessed in the archaeological record. Three major vegetation zones (Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, and Saharo-Arabian) can be observed. Similarly, the region also exhibits animals from the Oriental, Pelearctic, and Afrotropical 4 Elizabeth Arnold, “Climate and Environment of the Levant,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), 21. 5 Ibid., 23. 6 Daniel Fuks and Nimrod Marom, “Plants and Animals of the Land of Israel,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), 28. 3

zoogeographic zones. 7 One major takeaway is that the geographical features of the region, coupled with millennia of human movements through the area by settlers, traders, and Introduction to Biblical Archaeology Seymour Gitin’s “Introduction to Biblical Archaeology,” provides a necessarily brief “history” of modern biblical archaeology. Gitin notes the development of archaeology as a “scientific” discipline, noting especially those whose scholarly efforts helped solidify the study as a legitimate academic field as they developed techniques in the discipline. From its origins and into the 19 th century, biblical archaeology ceased to exists as a search for treasures that could be sold to the highest bidder (though that does continue to exist) into one with recognized methods of material preservation and standards of interpretation derived from and reliant upon other academic disciplines, from philology to atomic dating of remains. The discipline remains both art and science, with opposing interpretations occurring with analysis of the same data. Skeptics sometimes utilize archaeological data to deny biblical accounts while those who wish to believe the textual data of the Bible see greater confirmation of the literary accounts through examination of the same material than denials. Introduction to Ancient Near Eastern Literature Adam E. Miglio, in his chapter “Introduction to Ancient Near Eastern Literature,” makes an effort to introduce the modern biblical reader into the thought world of the authors and audiences of the various contexts that produced the constituent biblical documents. Many types of literature offer information relevant to biblical interpretation, though it is the “regular, everyday” material, rather than polished literature, that provides the greatest number of examples. Miglio stresses that informal sources provide the greatest amount of material, stressing that it is “letters, legal documents, scribal exercises, administrative sources” that 7 Ibid., 36. 4

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version

Access to all documents
Unlimited textbook solutions
24/7 expert homework help

scholars have large numbers of examples of, meaning that “nonliterary sources constitute the majority of sources from the ancient Near East, by comparison with literary sources.” 8 This is not to deny the intentionality of creation behind these nonliterary documents since they may allow insights into the thought world of the creating cultures, though it is not necessarily clear how these items can be “correctly” used in the areas of biblical exegesis and theology. Mesopotamian Literature In his “Mesopotamian Literature,” David C. Deuel rightly relays the idea that “Mesopotamian literature” is not a monolithic study since the descriptor arches over many centuries of time, through various ethnic and language groups, and many different writing scripts. The cultures extant in 2000 B.C. were not the same as those of 750 B.C. in their beliefs, languages, or literature. Deuel cautions readers about general statements regarding “Mesopotamian literature” and its application to biblical studies since the idea lacks precision. In line with Miglio, it can be seen that “Mesopotamian” authors covered a variety of genres and areas. Egyptian Literature Nili Shupak situates the reader who wishes to utilize Egyptian sources to discern interrelationship or biblical polemic by stressing the various strata that exist in Egyptian literature when he notes that, “Unlike the Hebrew Bible, no canon or defined corpus of ancient Egyptian literature exists.” 9 Extant Egyptian sources cover dozens of dynastic periods and millennia of time, so it is incorrect to assume that the literature at the beginning of recorded 8 Adam E. Miglio, “Introduction to Ancient near Eastern Literature,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), 93. 9 Nili Shupak, “Egyptian Literature,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), 104. 5

Egyptian history is in exact accord with that at the end of the period being studied. Shupak offers a brief, diachronic survey of literature that exists temporally with the texts of the Old Testament that clearly recognizes and cautions readers about assuming continuity of thought. This is in line with the warnings of Miglio and Deuel regarding the long period of time covered by Mesopotamian literature(s), though Shupak asserts that Egyptian literature remained much more uniform through fewer changes in language and overarching culture through time. Of interest for biblical studies are various religious and “historical” texts, in addition to poetry and wisdom texts, that seem to have parallels with some OT literature. Hittite Literature In her chapter “Hittite Literature,” Alice Mouton situates readers by identifying the temporal existence of the Hittite Empire (17 th – 12 th century B.C.) by simultaneously providing objective numbers, noting that we are in possession of “thirty thousand cuneiform tablet fragments uncovered in Hattuša/Boğazkale, the capital city.” 10 Similar to the “Mesopotamian literature” quandary, the items recovered represent various languages and scripts, with Moulton offering caution since it is not necessarily clear what constitutes “Hittite” literature, meaning those items that the Hittites produced, vs. literature that the Hittites collected. Regardless of issues of definition, archaeologists have recovered and helped introduce various items, from historical annals, a variety of theological myths, and religious stories, into the academic world. Ugaritic Literature William D. Barker’s “Ugaritic Literature” situates the student to the importance of Ugaritic by noting its existence as a language with a “consonantal alphabet” written in cuneiform, thereby bridging the gap between “Mesopotamian” pictographic scripts and the later 10 Alice Mouton, “Hittite Literature,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), 112. 6

alphabetic Aramaic script. Barker’s most important idea is that the texts uncovered and translated demonstrate close linguistic unity between biblical Hebrew and Ugaritic, such that their “relevance for biblical studies is quite significant because of the rich resources Ugaritic provides in, among other fields, comparative studies.” 11 After chronicling the discovery, translation, and publication of the finds at Ras Shamra, and aware of Samuel Sandmel’s caution for observing parallels where they may not legitimately exist (see below), Barker notes that the texts have proper use in biblical studies for “comparative and contrastive research in grammar, poetry, philology, and cultic ritual studies.” 12 Recognized to be cognate languages belonging to the “West Semitic” family of languages, Hebrew and Ugaritic share many similarities. One potential use of Ugaritic in biblical studies is through contextual comparison of vocabulary and also in the defining of hapax legomena in the biblical corpus. Important worldview ideas contained in religious texts, especially those of the Ba’al Cycle and Tale of Aqhat , may shed light on items in the biblical texts that remain unclear or which demonstrate clear polemic use by the biblical authors to undermine the religious beliefs of these near neighbors. Northwest Semitic Inscriptions In her contribution “Northwest Semitic Inscriptions,” Margaret E. Cohen reminds students that Hebrew, Ugaritic, and Phoenician are among the languages of the “Northwest Semitic” family. These languages, through their respective speakers, interacted with each other through trade and intermingling of people in a time when political borders were more fluid than today. The individual inscriptions are usually short, many lacking in context, and fragmentary. Importantly, many can be seen as “everyday” literature noting the conditions of “real life,” here 11 language named after the ancient city of Ugarit. It uses a consonantal alphabet, but unlike other West Semitic alphabets William D. Barker, “Ugaritic Literature,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), 120. 12 Ibid., 121. 7

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version

Access to all documents
Unlimited textbook solutions
24/7 expert homework help

meaning somewhat literate, non-scribes. 13 The vast majority of the extant inscriptions date from the early centuries of the first millennium B.C., so they may offer some insight into later prophetic texts due to their geographic and temporal proximity. Some, such as the Mesha Stele, offer more concrete evidence of the historical existence of biblical characters, though secondarily. Hebrew Inscriptions As a more specific subset of “Northwest Semitic inscriptions,” Hebrew inscriptions offer added data for biblical studies, both materially and philologically. Judith M. Hadley relates that most of the known Hebrew inscriptions can be dated between the 9 th through the 6 th centuries B.C. Hadley notes the paucity of Hebrew inscriptions, noting that they “are relatively few in number; we have no huge archives from Israel and Judah from the preexilic period as we do from earlier periods elsewhere in the Levant.” 14 Extant inscriptions are not uniform; they range from those inscribed on tombs and ordinary walls to royal seals, bullae, pottery, and even stone or metal. Content varies, from simple letters to prayers and graffiti. These demonstrate literacy, though there is no agreement as to whether these vulgar finds necessarily demonstrate high levels of literacy across the population. Hadley notes the rather unfortunate “forging of artifacts has become a big and lucrative business in recent years, to the extent that one must be particularly careful in dealing with any inscription that was not found in a secure archaeological context from a controlled excavation.” 15 Because of this, many individuals have exhibited greater skepticism towards publicized “discoveries” that validate biblical events and characters, though the 13 Margaret E. Cohen, “Northwest Semitic Inscriptions,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), 128 14 Judith M. Hadley, “Hebrew Inscriptions,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), 135. 15 Ibid., 136. 8

recognized methodology currently utilized has helped curb the forgery market by exposing fraudulent items and stress on controlled archaeological digs. Early Jewish Literature In his chapter, “Early Jewish Literature,” Ryan E. Stokes provides the student with brief introductory categorizations of Jewish writings outside of the Old Testament canon, especially those of the Second Temple era falling between the conquests of Alexander and the advent of Christianity. Stokes introduces the works of the Old Testament Apocrypha, “pseudepigraphic” material like 1 Enoch, material from Qumran (the Dead Sea Scrolls, or DSS), Jewish writings penned in Greek (Philo of Alexandria), and even the Septuagint translation of sacred texts (LXX). Stokes chronicles the existence of textual variants of the Hebrew Bible that do not agree with the Masoretic Text, but which sometimes agree with the LXX. Additional items, such as targums and biblical commentaries, allow insights into what various Jewish groups believed in their context, allowing us the potential to discern their beliefs. The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament Preface In this introduction to the IVP Bible Background Commentary , John H. Walton, Victor Matthews, and Mark Chavalas state quite clearly that “Rather than addressing all the varied elements of theology, literary structure, word meanings, history of scholarship, and so on, we have focused on the task of providing background information to the text ” (Walton, Matthew, Chavalas 8; emphasis added). While not a text designed for apologetics purposes, they affirm that material can be used to support the endeavors. This leads into the debate as to whether, and to what extent, ancient Hebrews were influenced by the literary milieu of their cultural world. Are the ancient Hebrews guilty of “crass plagiarism” as claimed by the 19th century German Assyrologist Friedrich Delitzsch? The trio declines to settle the debate, clearly recognizing 9

awareness and interaction with “those elements that may simply be part of the cultural heritage of the ancient Near East” (Walton, Matthew, Chavalas 8). Against the Gods A Brief History of Ancient Near Eastern Studies In the opening chapter of Against the Gods, John Currid offers a broad overview of Ancient Near Eastern (ANE) studies since the 18 th century. Special attention is given to archaeology and its focus on material remains. These items, many of which included texts preserved on clay tablets, provided an impetus for greater study of the ANE for their own sake. This also, due to perceived affinities with the biblical texts, have also altered the study and interpretation of the Old Testament in academia, which has also filtered down to the popular level. Currid advances the idea that the creation of systematic methodology and its application to archaeology have permitted careful recovery and study of material that previously was ignored or determined to be without monetary value. While not always applicable, the recovery of ANE material has helped explain historical trends and allowed some insight into the OT texts that was not possible without comparative material. The Nature of Polemical Thought and Writing Polemical theology, according to Currid, is “the use by biblical writers of the thought forms and stories that were common in ancient Near Eastern culture, while filling them with radically new meaning” (Currid 25). What Currid means by this is that the biblical writers were intimately familiar with the ideas, worldview, religious claims, and texts of theological opponents and utilized this knowledge in order to form a literary response. He argues for “polemical expressions” and “polemical motifs” before demonstrating how these are utilized by biblical authors to undermine their theological opponents. He is not fiercely dogmatic in his assertions, however, concluding that “polemical theology is only one lens through which to view 10

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version

Access to all documents
Unlimited textbook solutions
24/7 expert homework help

the relationship between the Old Testament and ancient Near Eastern literature” (Currid 31). One must be careful not to press the idea that the Old Testament is always hostile towards other cultures and their worldview since much is actually shared between ancient Israelites and the cultures of the ANE over time. Moreover, one must also not make the added step and argue that biblical texts were written only to respond to the religious or worldview claims that occur in other ANE literature. Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology Approaching Biblical Parallels in the Ancient Near East Jeffrey Niehaus briefly covers some of the major extant contributions and controversies since the introduction of comparative ANE material in the late 19 th century, with the claim that “Archaeology has in fact altered the whole climate of Old Testament studies. No study of biblical material can now be complete without some understanding of its ancient background” (Niehaus, 13). Niehaus explicitly notes his worldview and perspective, admitting that he views the biblical texts as truthful while rejecting the idea that data obtained from various ANE texts necessarily lead one to deny the veracity of the biblical accounts. Niehaus spends much of his time addressing the “Derivative Approach” that promoted the idea that the biblical creation and flood stories, with some modifications, simply plagiarized the older accounts. Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East Preface Victor Matthews and Don Benjamin provide readers with a “bibliography” of important texts and individuals that added study of may allow for greater understanding of parallel ideas that exist between the Hebrew Bible and various ANE texts. Matthews and Benjamin present the case that they intend to provide useful translations of pivotal documents that may allow information about the biblical texts to be revealed while maintaining scholarly moderation. In 11

this, Matthews and Benjamin assert that the introductory material for each selection is intended to convey uncontroversial stances and current scholarly consensus on the documents. Outline of Mesopotamian History; Outline of Egyptian History; Outline of Israelite History In this section, the authors include broad outlines with approximate dates for certain periods of each respective culture’s history, or specific years concerning certain events or rulers. Overlaps of certain individuals or events can be seen (such as Alexander the Great, who crosses all three of the outlines). The Bible Among the Myths Introduction In The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature? , John Oswalt states his belief that the worldview of the ancient Israelites differed from the surrounding cultures and was unique within their context in the ANE. The foundational claim supporting this unique is due to the assertion that “the veracity of the theological claims of the Old Testament is inseparable from the veracity of the historical claims” (Oswalt 15). The assertion presented by the Israelites, according to Oswalt, is that their god, Yahweh, continued to address them in and through their history and changing context, rather than through mythical stories presenting timeless truth. The Bible in its World After offering brief synopses of Greek and Hebrew thought, Oswalt presents an argument that the combining of the two mindsets into a new Christian worldview represents the creation of the overarching intellectual heritage that can be called “Western Civilization.” Interestingly, Oswalt admits that the new, mixed intellectual culture, which is a legitimate descendent of both 12

Hebrew and Greek thought patterns through theology and philosophy, is not one that necessarily comprehends the nuances of each respective culture in their temporal and cultural context. The Bible and Myth: A Problem of Definition In this section, Oswalt attempts to examine logical conclusions that readers will encounter from competing definitions for “myth.” Oswalt admits that use of the term “myth” does not need to convey negative connotations or operate as a pejorative as he examines its use in several temporal Western contexts. By using various approaches for understanding the term, from those of philosophical phenomenology, philological etymology, literary observations, and the importance of theology, Oswalt believes that myth is a term that “seeks to ensure the orderly functioning of both nature and human society” (Oswalt 45). With this in mind, the claim does not automatically affirm the veracity of the Bible nor argue that items called “myths” are necessarily false. Parallelomania In the now classic article “Parallelomania,” Rabbi Samuel Sandmel argues that readers seek to recognize patterns between events or texts and, in their excitement, sometimes overlook important, sometimes contradictory, differences in order to affirm the importance of similarities that strongly support the concepts of literary, cultural, or theological dependence. This tendency, which exists among lay readers as well as scholars, leads to an analysis that “proceeds to describe source and derivation as if implying a literary connection flowing in an inevitable or predetermined direction” (Sandmel 1). In other words, Sandmel argues that the desire to observe parallels can be a form of “begging the question” in which the inevitable conclusion is already assumed and data is sought to prove the assertion without weighing opposing data fairly. In relation to Old Testament exegesis, Sandmel preaches caution before reaching the conclusion 13

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version