OBST 800 Reading Assessment Assignment Pentateuch 09-03-2023

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LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY Reading Assessment: Pentateuch Submitted to Dr. Michael Graham, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of the course OBST 800-B02 Old Testament Backgrounds by Kristopher Williams 3 September 2023

TABLE OF CONTENTS BEHIND THE SCENES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT…………………………………... 1 THE IVP BIBLE BACKGROUND COMMENTARY: PENTATEUCH………………….7 AGAINST THE GODS……………………………………………………………………..7 OLD TESTAMENT PARALLELS………………………………………………………... 8 ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN THEMES IN BIBLICAL THEOLOGY………………….. 8 THE BIBLE AMONG THE MYTHS………………………………………………………9 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS FOR COMPARATIVE STUDIES……………… 10 ii

BEHIND THE SCENES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT Introduction to Ancient Near Eastern Iconography 1 In his “Introduction to Ancient Near Eastern Iconography,” Izak Cornelius first reminds readers that the OT is not a modern document, claiming that the complete text “breathes its ancient context” and that it is “best read in this ancient context” (Cornelius 151). His contribution focuses attention onto visual imagery utilized by the various cultures of the ANE, pressing the idea that the visual material under study was created for a functional purpose rather than simply for the sake of art itself. Statues or steles had religious, communicative, and/or propaganda purposes as opposed to simple aesthetics. The idea of communication focusing on perceptual ideology rather than conceptual interpretation was intentional, meaning that ideas rather than absolute reality was intended. 2 Cornelius instructs caution when he stresses that, like textual remains, the visual materials also “do not speak for themselves but have to be interpreted” (Cornelius 155). Cornelius promotes the idea that textual evidence and iconographic images “should be studied independently and properly” to reach appropriate conclusions (Cornelius 157). Mesopotamian and Anatolian Iconography 3 In line with the chapter title, “Mesopotamian and Anatolian Iconography,” Daniel Bodi continues Cornelius’ contribution by focusing in greater depth on the iconography produced by the various civilizations that settled present-day Syria, Iraq, Armenia, and Turkey. Bodi’s immediate claim is that examination and comparison of the extant “ancient visual art 1 Izak Cornelius, “Introduction to Ancient near Eastern Iconography,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 151-158. 2 The idea of the greatness of monarchical rule supersedes the reality of incompetence or failure of any particular monarch, for instance. 3 Daniel Bodi, “Mesopotamian and Anatolian Iconography,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 165-171. 1

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contemporary with the documents of the Hebrew Bible provides valuable insights for the reconstruction of the historical context of the biblical text and facilitates better understanding of cultural attitudes” (Bodi 165). This can be followed closely with the claim that these also offer greater insights into the “cultural, social, religious, and political world behind the Hebrew Bible” (Bodi 171). Bodi’s ultimate assertion is that the material under examination was not necessarily created for a later observer to understand the Bible. The relevant iconography has its own temporal agenda and foci independent of biblical texts, with insights into some of the biblical texts being secondary to its purpose(s). The materials are best understood to relay general knowledge of some of the cultures that interacted with, and sometimes influenced, the ancient Israelites. The Ancestral Period 4 In his chapter in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament, “The Ancestral Period,” Richard Hess looks to inform readers about, not only the patriarchs who are directly mentioned and followed in Genesis 12-50, those people and groups who were contemporary with the patriarchs. One idea Hess believes is settled is that “the Middle Bronze Age remains the most reasonable context for the origins of the traditions that lay behind much of Genesis 12–50” (Hess 187). Another important takeaway from extra-biblical study is that various personal names (Abram, Isaac, Jacob) and locations (Terah, Haran, Nahor) that are nearly contemporary with the hypothesized time period have been substantiated (Hess 189). Of course, the existence of this information does not provide definite proof of theological assertions, the accuracy of historical locations and names allow one to place trust in the veracity of the document. Beyond persons and places, some of the archaeological remains have confirmed cultural practices and customs in 4 Richard S. Hess, “The Ancestral Period,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 187-193. 2

the region that are very closely related to those recorded in the biblical record and attributed to the patriarchs. This allows an ongoing debate between scholars to examine whether the biblical texts accurately record information, whether through preserved documents or tradition that was recorded, or if later editors somehow inserted information in an anachronistic manner in order to add a veneer of antiquity and anticipate modern historical inquiry. Akhenaten and the Amarna Period 5 In his coverage of the exceeding brief reign of Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV), archaeologist Mark Janzen provides information regarding Akhenaten’s religious beliefs from that of acknowledging the existence of gods other than Aten; neglecting the other gods; abandoning the gods; to persecuting these gods and those who adhered to them (Janzen 256). Due to his short rule, Akhenaten’s attempts did not take deep root, allowing his successors to undo his efforts and even attempt to eradicate him from the historical record. Due to the iconoclastic tendencies of his Akhenaten’s successors, Janzen admits that reconstruction of Akhenaten’s religious beliefs and the reforms he undertook to achieve them are fragmentary, perhaps to the point of not being capable of accurate reconstruction. The question as to whether Akhenaten was monotheist is debated, with Janzen admitting that majority consensus among current Egyptologists supports the idea. An additional idea concerns whether, and to what degree if so, Akhenaten’s beliefs influenced the ancient Hebrews, or whether the Hebrews influenced him (Janzen 258). Interactions in the Ancient Cognitive Environment 6 5 Mark D. Janzen, “Akhenaten and the Amarna Period,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Context s, ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 253-259. 6 John H. Walton, “Interactions in the Ancient Cognitive Environment,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 333-348. 3

In line with other scholarship, such as his The Lost World of Genesis One, John Walton asserts that the “goal of this discipline is to recover the cultural layers from the world behind the text that were inherently understood by the ancient audience but have been long lost to our modern world” (Walton 333). Walton presents data in support of the thesis that ancient Hebrews were influenced through their participation in, or rejection of, cultural ideology and the resultant theological consequences within their temporal and geographical context. No definite, programmatic patterns of interaction can be determined from the extant literature. According to Walton, biblical authors sometimes borrow ideas. In other instances, cultural and theological ideas are rejected and subject to polemical attacks. Sometimes, incidental inclusion of “echoes” of content within the larger cultural milieu are unintentionally included by biblical authors, with Walton asserting that these unintentional inclusions being the cause for recognizing similarities between biblical texts and the ANE literature (Walton 339). Family Religion in Ancient Israel 7 Andrew Davis argues that greater understanding of family religious activities that are not necessarily recorded in the biblical texts, meaning that their recourse to extrabiblical sources is necessary, can help shed light on biblical texts that are unclear since the belief and cultic structures practiced by many biblical individuals is not explicitly chronicled. In line Hess’ examination of personal names and archaeological remains (see above), Davis argues that names of individuals support belief in Yahweh among the families that promulgated the names while the material remains offer evidence of the “where and how” people offered their worship. With long term settlement over many generations, archaeological surveys are able to analyze successive 7 Andrew R. Davis, “Family Religion in Ancient Israel,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 375-380. 4

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layers in order to chronicle the material remains of worship through time while comparing these data with the written record of the Bible. Women in Ancient Israel 8 Carol Meyers makes the simple assertion that accurately reconstructing the lives of women in ancient Israel is difficult for numerous reasons. Meyers notes the “androcentric” approach of the Old Testament, in which “(w)omen account for about six percent of the named people in the Hebrew Bible, and most are the relatively few exceptional or elite women, not the ordinary women who were the majority” (Meyers 396). When even the lives of the most important Hebrew/Israelite women, such as Sarah, Rebekah, Leah, and Rachel are mentioned in passing, the lives of the ordinary women were even less likely to be recorded. Thus, when biblical authors are interested in recording history, the focus is likely to be on the interactions that occurred between Yahweh and the nation at large and, especially once the monarchy was established, via the urban elites. No current evidence exists suggesting the existence of female scribes, so it is much more likely that the literati would record their activities and interests rather than those of illiterate, peasant men, much less peasant women. Even when archaeological evidence exists, Meyers is cautious since the remains require interpretation, with consensus yet to be reached. Based on current data and the broad convergence of scholarship on the topic, Meyers makes the assertion that ancient Hebrew and Israelite “women’s lives probably were more complex and more difficult than we might have supposed” (Meyers 402). Seasons, Crops, and Water in the Land of the Bible 9 8 Carol Meyers, “Women in Ancient Israel,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 396-402. 9 Oded Borowski, “Seasons, Crops, and Water in the Land of the Bible,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 411-415. 5

Oded Borowski asserts that some of seemingly irrelevant (at least for the modern reader) information the Bible preserves is far from accidental or filler. Information about the climate, type of land, and topographical features allowed the individuals to understand what the land was capable of supporting, whether farming, shepherding of animals, or viniculture. These items, while uninteresting to many modern readers, were accurately conveyed to contemporaries who understood their importance for their world. Slavery in the World of the Bible 10 In his “Slavery in the World of the Bible,” Richard Averbeck’s opening paragraph situates the slavery in the context of the Ancient Near East in comparison to how American readers understand slavery, noting that “that the kind of slavery known to New World studies, in which peoples were captured and taken en masse from their homeland specifically to supply and breed for labor in another country (or on another continent) is unknown in the ancient Near East, including the Bible” (Averbeck 423). In noting that slavery in the ANE was generally based upon slaves captured as the result of warfare or by debtors sold to settle their debts, Averbeck does not intend to portray ancient slavery as enlightened or benign. Averbeck notes the different types of slavery extant, both temporally and geographically, and informs readers of varied living conditions and legal situations. In his analysis, Averbeck provides details behind debt slavery and so-called chattel slavery, inside and outside of Israel contexts, while cataloguing the distinctions observed for native-born and foreign slaves and the legal conditions and requirements for release and redemption. Similarities in social conditions and practices relating the practice of slavery chronicled in biblical stories when compared in their greater context with 10 Richard E. Averbeck, “Slavery in the World of the Bible,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 423-430. 6

other ANE cultures and civilizations may suggest that the ancient Hebrews followed many of the societal norms while pressing similar legal codes. THE IVP BIBLE BACKGROUND COMMENTARY: PENTATEUCH John Walton, Victor Matthews, and Mark Chavalas address what they believe to be major items of use and benefit for understanding the biblical texts. Walton, Mathews, and Chavalas, while recognizing many reasons for reading the Pentateuch as a unified document, stress that “the background materials pertinent to the study of each book are vastly different” and, due to this, they will introduce ANE texts that have the most in common with each individual book rather than collectively. Each introduction notes some of the types of literature believed to correspond to ANE examples. AGAINST THE GODS 11 John Currid understands that his reading of the available materials is not necessarily the only way to interpret the texts. He admits that his is approach is one among many and that some parallels between ANE texts and the accounts recorded by the biblical authors are responses penned in response to the earlier, pagan ANE material, in an effort to dispute the intended messages of the earlier material while relating the correct message revealed by the god of Israel. For instance, when examining the biblical flood narrative in Genesis 6-9, Currid offers the observation that “the entire biblical narrative accentuates the role of Yahweh in the episode: he is in full control of the events” (Currid 61). This complete control of events is not observed in comparative ANE literature. Citing the Epic of Gilgamesh, Currid notes that the several gods of Mesopotamia actually exhibit fear for their safety because they are unable to demonstrate control over what they have unleashed, which taken together demonstrate a lack of omniscience, 11 John D. Currid, Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2013), pp. 33-74. 7

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omnipotence, and eternality. Here, Currid is able to stress that the worldview of the biblical authors, while situated in the ANE cultural milieu, intentionally interacts with ANE literature in order to critique the other gods and contrast them with Yahweh, who is subtly shown to be incomparable. OLD TESTAMENT PARALLELS Victor Matthews and Don Benjamin provide readers with introductions to each of the texts in order to provide appropriate background. In their translations, they also provide occasional Old Testament parallel texts that demonstrate similar wording or ideas, sometimes demonstrating similarity, while also allowing the reader to compare the texts to discover conflicts to or opposition with the claims made within biblical texts. ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN THEMES IN BIBLICAL THEOLOGY 12 In the second chapter of this monograph, titled “God and the Royal Shepherd,” Jeffrey Niehaus chronicles literature that presents the Egyptian pharaoh as the representative of the Egyptian creator god, Ra. 13 It was believed that the pharaoh was the literal manifestation of Ra though simultaneously existing as his agent. Of importance is data that demonstrates that Ra is presented with similar titles as Yahweh of Israel. Similar to the covenant between Yahweh and Israel, the gods of Egypt claimed to possess a unique suzerain/vassal relationship over the Egyptian people, yet also claimed to possess dominion over the cosmos due to the creative acts that established it. In addition, these gods also claimed to interact with their chosen people, Egypt, while allowing the sitting pharaoh, who is the incarnate Ra, was understood to alter the physical world through the power of his speech. Many of these motifs can be seen within the 12 Jeffrey J. Niehaus, Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology (Kregel Academic, 2008), pp. 34-55. 13 I recognize that “Egyptian” theology is not monolithic temporally and that changes can be observed depending on the dynasty and location of the capital city. 8

biblical texts, and it is suggestive to note that the biblical authors were aware of and sought to combat the claims. THE BIBLE AMONG THE MYTHS 14 John Oswalt argues that structural elements extant in the Bible prevent it from being categorized as myth. In chapter 3, “Continuity: The Basis of Mythical Thinking,” Oswalt attempts to offer definitions and examples of myth. In this effort, Oswalt argues that one universal identifier that is not temporally restricted nor culturally bound sees that, in mythic accounts, “there are no fundamental distinctions between the three realms: humanity, nature, and the divine” (Oswalt 48). Mythic accounts do not need to interact with what we may wish to call “actual history” since myth is understood to present continuity, meaning that “the present is all that exists, and thus reality only relates to the present” (Oswalt 50). Though gods are primary characters in myth, they are understood to exist outside of, yet along with, the temporal universe. Common mythic features, such as a pantheon of gods exhibiting human traits and lacking supreme power, low views of humanity in general, and a material cosmos that exhibits eternality with the divine beings, can be observed through time and cultures. Oswalt contrasts this generalized mythic worldview with the transcendent one he claims exists according to the biblical texts. Oswalt addresses the differences claimed by the biblical texts in opposition to the items that appear in mythic stories, such as the concept of “monotheism,” an ethical system lacking subjectivity, Yahweh’s appearance in history as a revelatory and condescending series of events, and even the lack of sexuality of the part of the creator. Creation is understood to be separate from Yahweh; it is neither divine, eternal, nor an 14 John N. Oswalt, The Bible among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature? (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), pp. 47-84. 9

extension of him. It is a thing to be used that ultimately has been created and maintained through Yahweh’s preference. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS FOR COMPARATIVE STUDIES In this excerpt from his M.A. thesis, Liberty University’s Jordan Jones argues that there exists an inability to apply certain ideas by rote in an attempt to determine whether or not texts demonstrate relationships, believing that the “difficulty with comparing one ancient Near Eastern (ANE) text to another for the purpose of ascertaining parallels resides in the utter confusion over which steps are necessary for legitimizing such parallels” (Jones 1). What this means is that there is no “scientific” series of steps one can apply since the texts were not composed with a scientific worldview. Jones believes that use of time-tested methodologies within the realm of peer-reviewed academia hold great promise, though this does not necessitate rejection of newer methodologies, as scholars seek to better “concretize” approaches for application. Jones provides examples of comparative methods and applies them, with special attention to Psalm 104, in an effort to demonstrate the use of similar motifs (chariot-rider, for instance) across several cultures and its use in the biblical corpus. 10

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