OBST 800 Reading Assessment Remainder of Pentateuch 09-10-2023

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LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY Remainder of Pentateuch Reading Assignment Submitted to Dr. Michael Graham, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of the course OBST 800-B02 Old Testament Backgrounds by Kristopher Williams 10 September 2023

TABLE OF CONTENTS BEHIND THE SCENES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT…………………………………...1 Archaeology of the Late Bronze Age……………………………………………… 1 Egyptian Iconography……………………………………………………………... 2 The Egyptian Sojourn and the Exodus…………………………………………….. 2 The Temple in Context…………………………………………………………….. 3 Metallurgy in the World of the Bible……………………………………………… 4 Law and Legal Systems in Ancient Israel…………………………………………. 5 AGAINST THE GODS……………………………………………………………………. 6 OLD TESTAMENT PARALLELS………………………………………………………... 8 ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN THEMES IN BIBLICAL THEOLOGY…………………...9 THE BIBLE AMONG THE MYTHS………………………………………………………10 ii

BEHIND THE SCENES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT Archaeology of the Late Bronze Age 1 Joe Uziel, in his contribution to Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament, offers broad coverage of the various archaeological evidence that has been uncovered in the southern Levant and dated to the latter centuries of the 2 nd millennium B.C. A major claim Uziel puts forward is that “Following the collapse of the Middle Bronze, the rebirth of urban society in the Late Bronze follows a completely different pattern than that of its predecessor” (Uziel 48). Evidence of population decrease and a decline in overall material culture obtained through interpretation of archaeological remains is one pillar that Uziel supports his “completely different pattern” argument with. Another support interprets the appearance of many deities within the same temple complex as the coalescing of control over religious cultic practices by monarchs and their priests. Conversely, archaeological finds also have seen the recovery of clay figures typically understood to represent deities within residential communities, rather than within temple areas. This evidence may allow for the idea of “popular religion” outside of the control of, if not a theocratic system, then one in which an official religious orthodoxy supported the monarchy. In addition to recoveries of what are interpreted to be religious artifacts, Uziel notes “a sharp increase in written finds from Canaan dating to the Late Bronze Age” (Uziel 51) that are composed in three different types of script (cuneiform, alphabetic, and hieratic). Despite the appearance of three different writing forms and languages, most written samples are composed in Akkadian, with the overall conclusion reached is that “written finds from Late Bronze Age Canaan are scarce, and it seems that documents were mostly limited to administrative needs” (Uziel 51). 1 Joe Uziel, “Archaeology of the Late Bronze Age,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Context s, ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 47-53. 1

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Egyptian Iconography 2 In her “Egyptian Iconography,” Laura wright presents archaeological evidence supporting the idea that Egyptian items, whether religious or just representative of their culture, secured acceptance and were recognized to possess utility and value across the southern Levant, including Israel, in large part due to the idea that a materially superior culture created and propagated them. Rather than remaining items that represented the values and worldviews of a foreign nation, many of these goods came to be seen as native to Israel rather than originating from Egypt and with the original cultural or religious significance intact. One reason for this “Israelization” of several items and motifs stems from evidence demonstrating that the items in question ceased to be exclusively imported from Egypt. Instead, local production of similar goods and items can be observed. The major takeaway, according to Wrights, is that “images once thought to be Egyptian likely became part of the southern Levantine iconography after centuries of use” (Wright 163). The Egyptian Sojourn and the Exodus 3 By claiming that the “exodus is the one event that defines the ancient Israelites more than any other, becoming an overarching theme in the nation’s literature and national identity,” David Falk seeks to apply evidence obtained from archaeological sites in unison with various literature in order to offer a plausible reconstruction of the travel route used by the generation led by Moses (Falk 194). In addition, Falk argues that the literary evidence observed in the Pentateuch have similarities with styles known to be prevalent in Egypt during the late Bronze Age while 2 Laura Wright, “Egyptian Iconography,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 159-164. 3 David A. Falk, “The Egyptian Sojourn and the Exodus,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 194-200. 2

claiming that the final form of the biblical text suggests that the author(s) possessed extensive knowledge and experience with the “area of the Nile delta and the customs as they existed in the late New Kingdom” (Falk 200). Evidence does not necessitate “proof” of an event, though utilization of material and literary remains allows for placing the exodus event into history rather than relegating it to myth. The Temple in Context 4 Having read and accepted the central claims of several of his monographs, with my first experience being The Lost World of Genesis One , John Walton essentially provides an abstract of the major claims from those larger texts. Walton situates his claim by arguing that the ancient Hebrews were actually members of the overarching ANE cultures through many centuries. Citing examples, especially those from the various Mesopotamian civilizations, Walton seeks to press the idea that Hebrew readers both understood and utilized temple imagery to understand their role in the cosmos. The major idea gleaned from ANE texts and, according to Walton, understood by these Hebrew readers, is that the temple was the home of the god and became “sacred space” due to the god’s presence as a resident. Divine-human interactions occurred in the temple complex, and while humanity performed rituals in order to receive divine gifts that were necessary for survival, the gods themselves also received part of their upkeep due to the actions of humans (Walton 350). Importantly, the placement of an image of a deity within a temple complex was not only needed as a reminder for which god resided, it was necessary in order for the temple to actually function. The gods maintained a distance and only met at the temple. 4 John H. Walton, “The Temple in Context,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 349-367. 3

Walton argues that the Hebrew worldview stands in opposition to these ideas. Originally, God created Eden as sacred space worthy of his presence and resided with his human creatures. Humanity, rather than existing to provide God with essentials or reduce/eliminate his workload, “are not an afterthought created with the purpose of meeting divine needs. Yahweh has no needs. People are created for relationship” (Walton 352). The concept of temple residence imagery in Hebrew thought stresses that sacred space is holy and, if the space does not remain so, then God will not reside there. Moreover, while ANE temples lost their significance without the presence of the god’s image (which could be replaced), the thought radiated by Hebrew believers was that “People are the only image that Yahweh tolerates” (Walton 354). Metallurgy in the World of the Bible 5 In their chapter in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament, Brady Liss and Thomas Levy argue that many of the authors of the Old Testament demonstrate familiarity with then- contemporary metallurgical techniques based on their descriptive language. Liss and Levy base their claims on information locating mines, especially copper used to make bronze. They dovetail this with literary evidence arguing that many authors demonstrate familiarity with the entire process, from mining to smelting, and from alloy purification to casting. Examination of several sites agreed to have been involved in metallurgical activities, especially one site called Faynan, suggests many of these claims are textually recoverable from biblical texts. In addition, utilization of historical geographic principles allows for greater understanding of the movements of people through the region for economic purposes, which allows for greater understanding of how materials clearly fabricated at one site traveled to many others. 5 Brady Liss and Thomas E. Levy, “Metallurgy in the World of the Bible,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 438-445. 4

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Law and Legal Systems in Ancient Israel 6 According to David Baker in his contribution, “Law and Legal Systems in Ancient Israel,” contemporary understanding of legal principles, in the Western world especially, do not translate back to the ANE. A precise definition of what entailed law versus normal societal interaction fails, with Baker stressing that “Neither ancient Israel nor its neighbors had a single, overarching term for the abstract concept of ‘law’ as jurisprudence” (Baker 492). Unconditional (Apodictic) law, along with Case (Casuistic) law were known across the several societies, with the latter increasing for individual circumstances over time, yet these did not solidify into what would be recognized in the United States as precedent based. Law, as understood by the ANE and biblical audiences, was not reductional into simple statutes; overall guidance for application in line with sapientiary principles were stressed. This can be observed through noting that known sources of legal codes are anthologies rather than creation of statutory law. Similarities that exist between ANE and biblical legal concepts should not be interpreted as plagiarism from one context to another, but rather as a general similarity in culture and worldview beyond religious understandings. AGAINST THE GODS John Currid expands upon his claim that many accounts in the Old Testament demonstrate certain structural features since they are intentionally constructed by the authors in 6 David W. Baker, “Law and Legal Systems in Ancient Israel,” in Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts , ed. Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018), pp. 492-498. 5

order to directly respond to a competing theological or worldview claim originating in civilizations contemporary with the original Old Testament audiences. In chapter 6, “The Birth of the Deliverer,” Currid surveys some of the birth narratives behind the stories of legendary men, whether divine or “great men,” that some scholars argue are material utilized by biblical authors in the creation of a similar story for Moses. The so-called Legend of Sargon, according to Currid, is a rather dangerous parallel for skeptical scholars to cite in their quest to discredit the biblical account of Moses, despite many sometimes striking similarities, since it does not appear in the archaeological record prior to the 8 th century B.C. Citing James Hoffmeier, an Egyptologist, Currid directs attention towards Egypt in order to discover any parallels since the OT texts claim an Egyptian provenance for Moses’ origin. One such parallel, the so-called “Myth of Horus,” seems to possess many similarities, with one possible conclusion being that “the biblical narrative does not appear to be anachronistic but properly reflects ancient Egyptian customs and practices. The birth account itself even includes Egyptian vocabulary” (Currid 82). Some Hittite accounts seem to relate how a great man or divine being achieved renown by overcoming some type of potentially fatal series of events while being weakened or unable to defend himself due to being an infant. Rather than copying, Currid argues that the ideas have been utilized to wage theological war upon the gods of Egypt while simultaneously rejecting the worldview of the citizenry. Chapter 7, “The Flights of Sinuhe and Moses,” sees continued focus on Egyptian literature, claiming that the biblical authors “often taunt ancient Near Eastern myth in their writings; polemics is one way of belittling and disparaging pagan myth” (Currid 89). Overall, Currid cites parallels that he believes demonstrate that the biblical author intentionally backgrounds the Egyptian story of Sinuhe, which the biblical author assumed his audience was 6

familiar with, in order to turn the story of Sinuhe around, thereby offering intentional denigration to Egypt. Chapter 8, titled “Who Is ‘I Am that I Am’? Exodus 3 and the Egyptian Book of the Heavenly Cow,” Currid continues to focus attention onto Egyptian claims of incomparability and superiority. In his contextual examination, Currid makes comparisons between recorded claims made by various pharaohs versus the claim made by the God of the Israelites when the latter states “I am who I am.” Currid explicitly states that the original audience understood clearly that Yahweh’s use of these words were to be read as a declaration of war upon the gods of Egypt. Importantly, the people of Egypt would have understood the same if they read the biblical texts. Chapter 9, “The Rod of Moses,” continues Currid’s examination of Egyptian motifs and their use by biblical authors in polemical theology. Currid informs readers of the backstory behind the use of a staff in the book of Exodus against the Egyptians. Egyptian society placed strong belief in the religious and political significance of wielding a staff by the priests and, by extension, pharaoh. The appropriation of a staff by foreigners for direct use against the Egyptians demonstrated the superiority of the god of the Israelites over those of Egypt since the wielders of the “staff of Yahweh,” Moses and Aaron, defeated the magical arts unleashed by the priests in their staff usage. Chapter 10, “The Parting of the Waters of the Red Sea,” sees the climax of the Israelite escape from Egypt. As with the staff imagery, Currid provides additional communicative features of the Exodus story by relating Egyptian myths in which magic was used in some manner to separate water. However, this does not necessarily suggest that Currid’s conclusion is either correct or useful for apologetics or theological purposes. In his excursus on the Westcar Papyrus, Currid argues that the Egyptian text is suspect because it was “written some 500–600 7

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years after the events it describes” (Currid 123). This observation, whether accurate or not, does not offer evidence against the truth claims of the text. The final form of the text centuries after the events in question does not argue against preservation of factual material. A case in point would be the Pentateuch itself since it shows evidence for many editorial hands, use of an alphabet that is not that of “original Hebrew,” and shows anachronistic place names. Currid’s citations regarding the Westcar Papyrus from Harold Hays stating that it is “not intended to be a historically reliable document,” and it was “not written as conscientious history” (Currid 123) are imposition of values by Hays (and also Currid) on the document itself. Discovery of alternate texts, contemporary with the Westcar Papyrus, that express the sentiments of Hays and thereby reject the claims made would be a much more responsible approach from a scholarly viewpoint. One critique that could be leveled against Currid’s approach is that the biblical accounts reduce to simple creative literature penned by clever authors instead of a recounting of historical events. The existence of the biblical texts would be simply to oppose the religious systems of other ANE “nations” without offering support for biblical veracity. However, “creative” need not be a pejorative, since the idea of creative non-fiction is a very real and plausible response to relay information about current events and correct the presentation of popular information. Moreover, a recognition of motifs by an author does not necessitate origination on his part. OLD TESTAMENT PARALLELS Victor Matthews and Don Benjamin provide background material to better understand the context and occasions for five sources before presenting translations for each. Importantly, the authors also provide examples of what they believe are parallels, or echoes, of similar material in the biblical texts. Though translations are interpretive, Matthews and Benjamin allow the translated texts to speak for themselves 8

ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN THEMES IN BIBLICAL THEOLOGY In chapter 3 of his text, “Covenant and Conquest,” Jeffrey Niehaus seeks to provide greater context and applicability for covenants between gods and humanity in the ANE. Niehaus stresses that the agreed upon covenant codes were understood to have primary applicability and enforcement within the realm governed by a particular monarch. With enforcement secured the god, monarch, and covenant nation, they were then to be extended to those peoples and nations not originally in covenant agreement. While peaceful proselytization and infusion of religious ideas certainly proceeded through movement of people and goods through trade, covenant expansion could certainly include violence through military conquest. While incorporation of conquered peoples into covenant agreement with the conquering nation and their god was presumed, there was also the idea that the divinities of the conquered also suffered defeat and were to be subject to the superior god of the conquering nation. Niehaus’ analysis ceases to explain and becomes nothing more than paragraph citations of primary sources that he believes supports his thesis. In one respect, the idea of “Egypt” fails since the religious and cultural beliefs of “Egypt” changed over their long history. This can also be seen in Mesopotamia since “Babylonian” refers to two distinct empires and millennia, with “Babylon” not being the same entity through time. The quotes have not been provided adequate context for analysis. Niehaus also allows the idea that “official decrees” promulgate what is actually believed and practiced. Antiquity of composition does not secure veracity. This also recognizes that countering the claims of the texts without use of comparable texts is speculative. THE BIBLE AMONG THE MYTHS In “The Bible Versus Myth,” John Oswalt makes a careful attempt to place the biblical authors in a different category with their contemporary neighbors by offering evidence that they 9

did not share complete agreement with the various cultural norms of their time and place. One aspect of Oswalt’s argument runs counter to Currid’s polemical theology approach. Oswalt believes that the items seemingly adapted by the biblical authors were done in an effort to distance themselves and their original audience from their overarching cultural beliefs of their time and place while presenting a clearly alternative religious and ethical system. Oswalt does not blindly deny similarities, but he does assert his belief that “these similarities are not the key issues when it comes to describing Hebrew belief” (Oswalt 92). Socio-political and theological systems are never the sum total of their constituent parts. Possession of certain ideals do not necessarily lead to the same ends or praxis. It is worth observing that the Hebrews/Israelites (theoretically, though not always in practice) claimed unique theological and ethical beliefs. Sharing of many similar practices did not necessitate certain beliefs, whether worship of Yahweh or of Baal (or Marduk, or any other god). Following this in “The Bible and History: A Problem of Definition,” Oswalt seeks to situate the historicity of biblical accounts versus those of the ANE by claiming that the former consistently depicts God’s interactions with humans in the arena of unique, nonrepeatable events of time and space” (Oswalt 111). Oswalt, correctly and explicitly in my view, denies that the biblical texts must be read as “history” since the intentions of the authors are not situated in the modern Western context that is predicated on “science” and following a historical methodology. Rather, Oswalt sees that the biblical authors consistently pressed the idea that Yahweh participates in the historical process as a major tenet of their faith. Their faith is not one of myth, but tangible and real, predicated upon the idea that Yahweh takes an active, condescending role to communicate his message in a particular time and place in a form that is understood by the recipients, thereby revealing his innate character and his desires for humanity. 10

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