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Western University *
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1220
Subject
Philosophy
Date
Nov 24, 2024
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docx
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11
Uploaded by MagistrateBearMaster50
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Certainly, your text explores the evolution of
Presocratic philosophy and its significance
within a broader intellectual era known as the
"Axial Age." Here's a summarized university
level analysis: Presocratic philosophy emerged
during the Axial Age, a transformative period in
the 6th century B.C., which also witnessed the
rise of thinkers like Conf ucius, Buddha, and
Hebrew prophets. Unlike other Axial thinkers,
Greek philosophers adopted what is termed the
"theoretic attitude," emphasizing critical thinking
and reason to explore transcendental principles
that govern nature. This departure from
mythological thinking heralded a quest for
"wisdom" (Sophia) and gave birth to the
concept of the philosopher as the "lover of
wisdom" (philo-sophia). Greek philosophy, in
particular, distinguishes itself by shifting from
mythological to rational explanations of complex
issues like the immortality of the soul and the
existence of God. This shift is monumental in
shaping the Western understanding of the self
as a rational, critical agent. Several theories
exist to explain the origins of this theoretic
attitude, including its roots in religious
experience, the advent of literacy, involvement
in democratic governance, or celestial
speculations as suggested by Aristotle. In the
realm of Presocratic philosophy, three major
themes can be identified: 1) the rational rather
than mythological explanation of nature, 2) the
identification of a principle or principles
governing the order within reality, and 3) the
argument that this principle or set of principles
is foundational to ultimate reality. Before the
time of Pythagoras, philosophers like the
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Milesians and Heraclitus were mainly concerned
with identifying the ultimate material "stuff " of
the world
.
After Pythagoras and Parmenides, the
focus shifted toward metaphysical concepts like
form, number, and being. This transformation in
philosophical thinking led to a new conception
of what it means to be a human being,
emphasizing rational agency and contributing
to
the Western intellectual tradition. (Page 1-
4)
Your text is a comprehensive survey of
early
Greek and Southern Italian philosophers,
exploring their views on cosmology, the nature
of existence, and the limits of human
knowledge. It covers the following thinkers and
their key ideas:
1.
**Thales**: Believed that
water is the principle of all things and that the
Earth floats on water. He also demonstrated that
philosophers could be wealthy but choose not
to be for the sake of intellectual pursuits. 2.
**Anaximander**: Introduced the concept of the
Indefinite (to Apeiron) as the first principle,
which is neither water nor any other element. He
suggested that motion within this Indefinite led
to the formation of the world. 3.
**Anaximenes**: Considered air as the basic,
infinite substance that changes through
condensation and rarefaction, leading to the
formation of different elements. 4.
**Heraclitus**: His principal claims revolve
around the idea that change is the fundamental
reality, governed by the principle of order or
Logos. The Logos maintains the balance of
opposites. 5. **Southern Italian Philosophers**:
- **Xenophanes**: Critiqued Homeric depictions
of gods and emphasized a gap between human
and divine wisdom. - **Pythagoras and
Parmenides**:
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Parmenides**: Both believed that human
intellect could access the divine realm,
Pythagoras through mathematics and
Parmenides through an awareness of being. 6.
**General Note**: These philosophers
contributed to a shift in understanding the
divine, distancing it from human traits and
linking it to the notion of an absolute truth
that
is only accessible to divine beings. The text also
points to the evolution of thought that
eventually leads towards monotheism and a new
epistemological order, setting the stage for later
developments in philosophy. (page
5-8)
The Pythagorean philosophy centers around the
idea that the universe and all its elements can
be explained through numbers and their
relationships. Starting from the notion of the
"Monad" or "the One," they believe it serves as
the foundational principle from which all
numbers and, consequently, all elements of
reality emanate. Numbers, for Pythagoreans, are
not abstract but possess spatial magnitude,
forming the very substance of sensible objects.
Musical theory, particularly the study of
harmonics, serves as a key example for them.
Pythagoras discovered the basic musical ratios
-octave, fourth, and fifth-through numerical
relationships. These ratios were seen as the
underlying structure of not just musical
harmony, but also the universe. They believed
that numerical ratios bring order, limit, and
harmony to an otherwise indefinite or chaotic
existence. In more metaphysical terms, the
Pythagoreans saw numbers as mediating
between the principles of limit (peras) and the
unlimited (apeiron). The Monad, or the One, is
the principle of
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the principle of unity that originates numbers
and, by extension, brings order to the universe.
Dualities such as subject and object, or the
knower and the known, are unified by the third
term, thereby creating a harmonious relation
between extremes. This reflects the
Pythagorean paradigm of unity giving rise to
duality, which is subsequently unified to create a
balanced continuum. Overall, Pythagorean
thought offers an integrated worldview where
numbers, harmonics, and metaphysical
principles are intricately linked to explain the
structure and phenomena of the universe.
(pages 9-12)
The text discusses two major philosophical
schools of thought: Pythagoreanism and Eleatic
philosophy, primarily focusing on Parmenides'
response to Pythagorean ideas. In
Pythagoreanism: - The Void plays a role in
distinguishing and separating things. -
Numerology is essential, originating from the
Monad (the One). Numbers and geometric
forms are constitutive of reality. - There are
principles like the Limited and Unlimited, and
numbers are considered the elements of all
things. - Opposites like light and dark, odd and
even, etc., are crucial. - The soul is an
attunement or harmony of opposites.
Parmenides of Elea challenges Pythagoreanism
by: - Arguing that if the many originate from
the
One, then the One must be divisible, which
contradicts its nature. - Introducing the
principle
of non-contradiction: something
cannot be and
not-be at the same time. -
Proposing that Being
is one and immutable;
there is no void or
plurality. Parmenides'
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thoughts can be divided
into the Way of
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into the Way of Truth, which focuses on what
"Is" and disallows contradiction, and the Way of
Seeming, which he sees as the flawed,
contradictory way that humans usually think.
The text ultimately underscores the profound
impact of Parmenides' discovery of the principle
of non-contradiction, enabling a method to
distinguish truth from semblance, thereby
having implications not only for philosophy but
also for practical matters like law. (Pages 13-
16)
The text delves into the contributions of
Parmenides and Zeno to philosophy, logic, and
our understanding of reality. Parmenides is
lauded as the "father of logic" for his reliance
on rational argumentative devices like
contradiction. These logical methods underpin
not only philosophy but also practical systems
like law, where judges and juries use reasoning
to determine truth amid conflicting accounts.
Zeno of Elea, a follower of Parmenides, authored
paradoxes to defend the idea that Being is One
and Indivisible. Zeno's paradoxes, including the
famed "Achilles and the Tortoise" and "The
Flying Arrow," argue against the existence of
motion and plurality, serving as a counter
argument to Pythagorean views. The text also
discusses various theories that have evolved to
address these paradoxes and Parmenidean
principles. Philosophers like Empedocles,
Anaxagoras, Leukippus, and Democritus
introduced pluralistic models, postulating basic,
indivisible entities ("monads" like atoms or
elements) that undergo rearrangement to
explain motion and change. These pluralistic
theories attempt to reconcile the Parmenidean
insistence on Being as self-identical with the
observable realifv
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r.nanae ann nluralitv_ In
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observable reality of change and plurality. In
summary, the works of Parmenides and Zeno
have had a foundational impact on Western
thought, provoking rich debates on logic, reality,
and the nature of existence that have shaped
various disciplines, from philosophy to natural
sciences to law. (pages 17-20)
The text discusses the philosophical viewpoints
of several Presocratic thinkers concerning the
origins and workings of the cosmos.
Empedocles posits two forces, Love and Strife,
which cyclically govern the cosmos. These
forces blend and separate the four classical
elements (Earth, Water, Air, Fire) in a cycle that
has four stages: two of unity under Love or
Strife and two transitional stages. Anaxagoras
suggests that matter is made of infinitely
divisible "seeds." These seeds are governed by
Nous (Mind), which is an independent, all
knowing entity that controls all things and
initiates motion. Leucippus and Democritus
propose a pluralistic model based on atoms.
They align with Parmenidean ideas about
being
but break away by suggesting that the
universe
is composed of atoms distinguished
by size,
shape, and position. These atoms
move in a
void, and the combinations of these
atoms give
rise to the world. In summary, these
philosophers offer distinct frameworks for
understanding the physical world, ranging from
dualistic forces and elements to the
infinitesimal
constituents of matter. Each theory
engages
with questions of change, being, and
governance in the universe. (pages 21-23)
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