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Applied Lecture 2 Leadership Dr Sara Willis Sara.willis@manchester.ac.uk Applied Lecture 2 Leadership Aims To determine your implicit theory of leadership, to self-assess your strengths and areas for development and how they link to leadership emergence and effectiveness and how your leadership attributes can be successfully developed. Strengths Areas of Development Methods for Development Activities : 1. Certain attributes possessed by leaders are important for leadership emergence and effectiveness. i. Individually write a list of what you consider to be the attributes and leadership behaviours of a good/effective workplace leader ii. From this list, select three attributes/ behaviours that in your view you currently excel at (i.e., strengths) and three attributes/ behaviours that in your view you currently do not excel at (i.e., areas for development). 1. Identify three leader attributes/ leadership behaviours that in your
view you currently excel at (i.e., strengths) and three attributes/ leadership behaviours that in your view you currently do not excel at (i.e., areas for development). For each of the attributes/behaviours selected discuss to what extent they relate to leadership effectiveness. 2. For the three areas you do not currently excel, discuss leader development techniques you could engage in to successfully develop these attributes/ behaviours. A short re-cap…. ….which leadership approaches do you remember? ‘ There are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are leadership theories ’ (Fiedler, 1971) Summary of leadership approaches Transformational Leadership Self-Assessment Idealised Influence Intellectual Stimulation Inspirational Motivation Individualised Consideration Are you a transformational leader?
Discuss in pairs how much the components of transformational leadership are areas of strength or development for you. Leader Development Leader Leadership Capital Type Human Social Competence Base Intrapersonal Interpersonal Skills Self- awareness •Emotional awareness •Self-confidence •Accurate self-image Self- regulation •Self-control •Trustworthiness •Personal responsibility •Adaptability Self- motivation •Initiative •Commitment •Optimism Social awareness •Empathy•Servic e orientation •Political awareness Social Skills •Building bonds •Team orientation •Change catalyst •Conflict management Self-Assessment Leader Development 2. For the three areas you do not currently excel, discuss leader development techniques you could engage in to successfully develop these attributes/ behaviours. Leadership Development Techniques Six commonly practised ones (Day, 2000):
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1. 360 degree feedback : Multi-source ratings of performance, organised and presented to an individual 2. Coaching : Practical, goal-focused form of one-to-one learning 3. Mentoring : Advising/developmental relationship, usually with a senior manager 4. Networks : Connecting to others in different functions and areas 5. Job Assignments : Providing ‘stretch’ assignments in terms of role, function, or geography 6. Action learning : Project-based learning directed at important business problems Which of the leader development methods could be suitable for your areas of development? Development Area 1 Development Area 2 Development Area 3 360 feedback Coaching Mentoring Networks Job Assignments Action Learning Top Tips
• Ensure your answer addresses the assignment task • Your 3 strengths/ development areas can be based on different leadership theories/ approaches/ evidence • Ensure that you back up ideas with reference to academic literature and scientific evidence (e.g. your strengths and impact on leader effectiveness) • Including scientific evidence will be rewarded! • Critical thinking and analysis will be rewarded – try not to just describe Document 2: Leadership By Robin Martin BMAN73132 Organisational Psychology Leadership Robin Martin (robin.martin@manchester.ac.uk Definitions ‘there are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are leadership theories’ (Fiedler, 1971) “ the ability of an individual to influence, motivate , and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members ”
(GLOBE Study) Approaches to Leadership Time Approach Core theme 1930s/1940s and 1980 - Trait Leaders are born or socialised to have certain stable characteristics – that make them a good leader Late 1940s to early 1960s and 1990 – Style Leadership is about behaviour – what do good leaders do Late 1960s to early 1980s1990 - Contingency Leadership is affected by context – under a given condition what kind of leader or leadership style will be effectiveThe relationship between leader and follower is central to understanding good leadership Relational Trait Approaches Time Approach Core theme 1930s/1940s and 1980 - Trait Leaders are born or socialised to have certain
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stable characteristics – that make a good leader in many situations? • Often referred to as the ‘great man/woman/person approach’ • Leader-focused; description of the leader • Focus on typical characteristics of leaders vs. non-leaders ˉ Leaders possess special qualities that set them apart from others ˉ Research tended to focus on men • Often incorporate idea that great leaders are born, not developed ˉ Useful for selection rather than development Traits and Skils Trait: stable attributes of a person • Personality - relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular way (e.g., extraversion, self-confidence) • Needs/Motives - desire for particular stimuli or experiences (e.g., power, achievement) • Values – attitudes about right/wrong judgments (e.g., honesty, equality) • Beliefs – about relationship to others (e.g., self-concept, social identity) • Physical (e.g., gender, height)
Skill: ability to do something in an effective way (e.g., intelligence , interpersonal, verbal) Historical Overview 1930-1950 • Many inconclusive studies 1950-2002 • Improved research designs yielded more convincing results • Limited evidence that traits predict leadership effectiveness • Individual differences predict some aspects of leadership i.e. promotion or derailment but not leadership effectiveness After 2002: • Strong evidence in favour of the trait approach due partly to more sophisticated personality tests (more valid and reliable) and advancements in trait research Historical Overview Stogdill (1948) McClelland (1965) Stogdill (1974) Yukl (2006 IntelligenceAlertness ResponsibilityInitiativePersi stenceSelf- ConfidenceSociability Need for achievementNeed for affiliation Need for power: socialised personalised Traits Adaptable, alert, ambitious, assertive, cooperative, decisive, dependable, dominant, energetic, persistent, Stress Toler Energy Level Self- Confidence Interna of ControlEmotion Stability and
selfconfident, tolerant of stress, responsibility Skills Clever, conceptually skilled, creative, diplomatic and tactful, fluent in speaking, knowledgeable, organized, persuasive, socially skilled MaturityPersonal I Power Motivation Achievement OrientationNeed fo Affiliation Intelligence and Leadership Intelligence : “a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience.” (Gottfredson, 1997) The importance of intelligence: The evidence (meta-analysis of 96 studies; Judge, Colbert & Ilies, 2004) • intelligence and leader emergence: r = .25, (65 studies) • intelligence and leader effectiveness: r = .20, (75 studies) • observer-rated intelligence and leader emergence: r = .60, (9 studies) Intelligence and Leadership Conclusions
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• Intelligence seems important, but less so than commonly assumed • Part of the Implicit Theories of Leadership (selffulfilling prophecy) • Apparent intelligence may be more important than actual intelligence Big Five Model of Personality O penness to Experience C onscientiousness E xtroversion A greeableness N euroticism » OCEAN (Costa & McCrea, 1992) Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeablen Broad- mindedCuriousCreativeUntr aditionalImaginative Ambitious Preserving Selfdisciplined Reliable Punctual Hard working Active Personoriented Fun loving Affectionate Sociable Optimistic Trusting He Softhearted Good-n Straightforward Personality and Leadership Based on 222 correlations from 73 Samples with total N=43,000 (Judge et al., 2002) Trait Leader Emergencer Leader Effectiveness r Openness .24 .24 Conscientiousness .33 .16 Extraversion .33 .24 Agreeableness .05 .21
Neuroticism -.24 -.22 Personality – The Dark Side • ‘‘ Not all psychopaths are in prison. Some are in the Boardroom .’’ (Hare, 2002) • Grandiosity, Need for Power, Egocentricity, Deceptiveness, Lack of Empathy, Irresponsibility, Impulsivity, and a Tendency to violate social norms • Babiak, Neumann, and Hare (2010) – 4% of high level managers are psychopaths. • Ability to charm, manipulate and mirror others The Dark Side of Personality The narcissism personality syndrome includes several traits relevant for both effective and ineffective leadership (Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2007) Some of the most and least successful leaders were narcissistic (Deluga, 1997) due to their strong self-confidence, high selfesteem, need for power and optimism which facilitates influence on others Strongly influenced by upbringing and parenting style (rejecting and unresponsive) which leads to a preoccupation with trying to establish own power and control in later life which leads to an exaggerated sense of own self-importance.
Research often case study based and lacking empirical vigour Managerial Motivation (McClelland, 1965, 1985) Affiliation Need – receives satisfaction from being liked and accepted by others, enjoy working with people who are friendly and cooperative. Achievement Need – desire to excel, drive to succeed, willingness to assume responsibility, and concern for task objectives Power Need • Personalized – desire to use power to aggrandize self and satisfy need for esteem and status • Socialized – receives satisfaction from using power to the benefit of others. Leader Emergence Leader Effectiveness Cognitive Capacities and Skills General Intelligence .25 - .52 .15 - .17 Creative/Divergent thinking capacities .35 .31 Problem-solving skills .39
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Decision-making skills .32 Personality Extraversion .15 - .32 .12 - .31 Conscientiousness .19 - .33 .16 - .28 Openness .17 - .24 .09 - .24 Agreeableness .01 - .05 .03 - .21 Neuroticism -.08 - -.24 -.22 - -.24 Positive affectivity .28 .33 Narcissism .16 .03 Integrity .29 Motives Dominance .17 - .37 .35 Achievement orientation .28 Energy .29 Need for power .16 Proactivity .19 Ambition .05 Social Skills Self-monitoring .14 .19 - .21 Social acuity .30 communications .24 - .25 Emotional Regulation .14 - .37 Task Skills Administrative skills .17 Self-beliefs
Self-efficacy/Self- esteem .17 .24 Knowledge Technical knowledge .19 Evaluation of Trait Approaches • Some consistency in traits that are important for effective leaders, e.g., intelligence • Much variation within studies and reviews • Lack of theoretical reasoning as to how traits lead to leadership effectiveness. • Typically relies on self-reported measures (open to faking and self-deception). Style Approaches Time Approach Core theme Late 1940s to early 1960s and 1990 - Style Leadership is about behaviour – what do good leaders do? • What do leaders do that make them effective? • Several theories about leadership behaviour and how different types of leaders can be distinguished Ohio and Michigan studies
• Ohio (Fleishman, 1969), Michigan (Katz et al., 1950s) • Initiating structure (production-orientation). The extent to which the leader defines and structures their own role and subordinates’ roles. Workers viewed as a means for getting work accomplished. • Consideration (employee-orientation). The extent to which the leader demonstrates trust in subordinates, respect their ideas and shows consideration for their feelings. Effects of Leadership Behaviour Leadership Behaviour Consideration/ Initiating Structure/People Orientation Task Orientation r / p r / p Leader effectiveness Followers’ motivation Satisfaction with leader Job satisfaction Group/Org. performance .39 * .40 * .68 * .40 * .23 * .28 *.26 *.27 *.19 *.23 * Overall average .49 * .29 * Based on 400 correlations from 200 studies with 300 samples (Judge, et al.,2004) Transformational Leadership One of most studied theory of leadership
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Differentiates Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership: distinct but not mutually exclusive processes. Effective leaders use a combination of both types of leadership - Transformational : Appeal to followers values and emotions to inspire and motivate them to go beyond selfinterests and prioritise organisational objectives - Transactional : Appeals to self-interest and exchanging benefits (Bass, 1985) Transformational Leaders • Being a role model, showing respect and trust • Encouraging new ideas and innovative approaches • Creating a positive vision, showing enthusiasm &
optimism, creating meaning • Listening to followers’ concerns, acting as a mentor & coach Transformational Leadership Outcomes Higher levels of TL linked with positive outcomes: • Follower satisfaction, motivation and performance • Leader Performance and effectiveness • Group and Organisational effectiveness • Based on Meta-Analysis (Judge and Piccolo, 2004; Wang et al., 2011) • Some criticism of the research (e.g., Van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013) Evaluation of Style Approaches • More optimistic – just because you’re not born with
particular traits doesn’t mean you can never lead • Easier to link to leadership development (e.g. training of behaviour) • Still fairly simplistic; is the same style right for all situations and all followers? Contingency Approaches Time Approach Core theme Late 1960s to early 1980s Contingency Leadership is affected by context – under a given condition what kind of leader or leadership style will be effective? • Idea is that the type of leader/leadership behaviour that is best will depend on contingencies • Organisational context • Task context • Follower context • Focus on leader effectiveness and context • Multiple theories proposed Contingency Theories
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Leader Followers Task & Context Leader effectiveness is determined by both the personal characteristics of leaders and followers and by various characteristics of the situation in which leadership process takes place Situational Leadership Theory Hersey and Blanchard (1977, 1988) • Leaders are effective when they select the right style for the ‘readiness’ of their followers – should adjust style Able High/moderate readiness = participative style High readiness = delegating style Unable Low readiness = telling style Low/moderate readiness = selling style Unmotivated Motivated Situational Leadership Significance Theory provides a useful and understandable framework for situational leadership but poor research support (Chen & Silverthorne, 2005; Thompson & Vecchio, 2009) The model suggests that there is no one best leadership style for all situations Manager’s leadership style must be adaptable and flexible to meet the changing needs of employees and situation • Know your style
• Match your style to follower maturity and task situation House’s Path-Goal Theory Evans (1970), House and colleagues (1971, 1974, 1974) Theory is about how leaders motivate subordinates to accomplish designated goals Effective leaders clarify the path (remove obstacles) to help followers achieve their work goals Underlying assumption of path-goal theory is derived from expectancy theory : • Motivation = Value * Expectancy * Instrumentality (V.I.E) House’s Path-Goal Theory Leader defines goals ( Value ) Leader clarifies path ( Expectancy ) Leader removes obstacles ( Instrumentality ) Leader provides support ( Instrumentality ) Path Path Obstacle(s) Followers Goal(s) Followers Motivation Goal(s)
Leader Behaviours DirectiveSupportiveParticipativeAchieve ment Oriented Follower Charac teristics Task C haract e ristics Evaluation of Contingency Approaches • Some theories are criticised for being primarily intuitive • Empirical support is weak to mixed • There are so many contingencies! • But….. • Consideration of match between context and leader style is an advance • Suggests that there is no one best leadership style for all situations • Manager’s leadership style must be flexible to meet changing needs of employees and situation • Rather than focusing purely on leader or follower, LMX examines the relationship between the two.
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• Premise: the essence of leadership is the relationship that develops through social-exchanges (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) Approach Core theme LMX The relationship between leader and follower is central to understanding good leadership Relationship-based Approach to Leadership “On the basis of our review of the literature, we view the relationship with one’s supervisor as a lens through which the entire work experience is viewed” (Gerstner & Day, 1997) "The most important single ingredient in the formula of success is knowing how to get along with people.“ (Theodore Roosevelt) Relational Leadership Contemporary approaches are increasingly taking a relationship orientation in the study of leadership Emphasis is being placed upon the importance of interpersonal relationships Leadership process revolves around the unique relationship between the leader and follower, through a reciprocal process
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The quality of this relationship crucial for leader effectiveness, follower well-being and performance Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX) Through the process of social exchanges, leaders develop different quality relationships with members of their team (Graen et al., 1975) LMX theory describes the different kinds of relationships that develop between leader- follower and what each gives to and receive back from the relationship Leader-Follower Relationship Through sets of social exchanges, leader develops different types of relationship with their subordinates, which vary from low to high quality LMX. Low quality – follower asked to only comply with role requirements to receive ‘standard’ benefits, low trust and support High quality – with trusted followers who function as assistants, lieutenants or advisors – based on mutual influence, trust, loyalty, affect and support High Quality LMX Relationships In these exchanges leaders may offer…. • Mentoring (Scandura & Schriesheim, 1994) • Sponsorship of subordinates in social networks (Sparrowe & Liden, 2005)
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• Empowerment (Chen, Kirkman, Kanfer, Allen, & Rosen, 2007; Liden, Wayne, & Sparrowe, 2000) In exchange for…. • Higher levels of subordinate organizational citizenship behaviours (OCB; e.g. Blau, Moideenkutty & Ingham, 2010) • Task performance (e.g., Cogliser, Schriesheim, Scandura, & Gardner, 2009) LMX Outcomes: Work Reactions Meta-analysis, LMX with: • Job Ssatisfaction (88 samples) r = .49 • Leader Satisfaction (32 samples) r = .68 • Organisational Commitment (58 samples) r = .47 • Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (27 samples) r = .39 • Turnover Intentions (38 studies) r = -.39 • Actual Turnover (9 studies) r = -.17 (Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brouer & Ferris, 2012) LMX Outcomes: Work Performance Meta-analysis, LMX with:
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• Task Performance (146 samples): r = .30 • Citizenship Performance (97 samples) r = .34 • Counterproductive Performance (19 samples) r = -.24 [Objective Performance (20 samples) r = .24) (Martin, Guillaume, Thomas, Lee & Epitropaki, 2016) Why does LMX affect Performance? Role Theory (Graen & Scandura, 1987): ‘leader’ and ‘follower’ have role-specific expectations and high LMX clarifies which behaviours are appropriate for good performance (e.g., high LMX → role clarity → performance) Social Exchange Theory (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005): through exchanges followers feel obliged to ‘pay back’ leader in exchange for important resources, (e.g., high LMX → trust, satisfaction, commitment → performance) Self-determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; 2000): people are motivated to work hard when they feel they have control over their environment, high LMX increases followers work autonomy (e.g., high LMX → motivation, empowerment → performance) LMX Differentiation There is consistent empirical support for the prevalence of differentiated relationships within work teams
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Longitudinal study by Nahrgang, Morgeson and Iles (2009) found that over an 8 week period from initial interaction leaders did develop significantly different quality LMX relationships across the team Generally, the greater the LMX variation, the worse are the team processes (e.g., increased conflict) and worse are work reactions (Martin, Thomas, Legood, Dello Russo, 2018) LMX Differentiation: In-group/Out-group Leaders do not treat all followers equally Ingroup (or individual) are favoured by leader (more attention, greater share of resources) Outgroup (or individual) are less favoured – less satisfied, more likely to resign, lower performance (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) Why do leaders develop different quality relationships? Cognitive Too many people to manage Unable to spend time with all followers Motivation Prejudice Desire to sub-group Divide & conquer
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‘Heroic’ leadership strategies Have ‘blame agents’ Enhance in-group membership Summary Theory Which leaders are best Trait Those with particular traits like intelligence, assertiveness – good leaders in many contexts Style Those who behave democratically, and who balance relationship- and task-orientation. Those who inspire a vision in their followers Contingency Those who adjust style to the situation and their followers Relational Those who build high quality relations with their followers Document 3:
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BMAN73132 Organisational Psychology: Leadership by Prof Sharon Clarke February 2023 Ken Lay, CEO Enron Chen Aviation Oil Jiulin, CEO China Carly Fiorina, CEO HP Tony Hayward, CEO BP Overview • What makes an effective leader? • Classic leadership theories • ‘Dark side’ of leadership • Relational approach to leadership • Authentic, Servant & Compassionate Leadership Definition of Leadership Leadership is the ability of an individual to influence , motivate , and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members. (GLOBE Leadership Project) Management vs. Leadership Classic Leadership Theories 1. ‘Great Man’ - Possession of Special Traits 2. Style/Behaviour - Concern for Task/Person 3. Contingency - Choice of Styles is
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dependent on the situation 4. Transactional v Transformational ( Charismatic) Leadership Traits approach: Great man….. Traits approach: …..or Great woman Leader traits and skills Trait: stable attributes of a person • Personality - relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular way (e.g., extraversion, self-confidence) • Needs/Motives - desire for particular stimuli or experiences (e.g., power, achievement) • Values – attitudes about right/wrong judgments (e.g., honesty, equality) • Beliefs – about relationship to others (e.g., self-concept, social identity) • Physical (e.g., gender, height) Skill: ability to do something in an effective way (e.g., intelligence, interpersonal, verbal) Trait research findings • Many variables examined, poor research design • Summary of main traits: Stress Tolerance, Energy Level, SelfConfidence, Internal Locus of Control, Emotional Stability and
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Maturity, Personal Integrity, Power Motivation, Achievement Orientation, Need for Affiliation (Yukl, 2010) • Also skills, personality, intelligence, competencies • Overall, moderate relation between traits and leadership effectiveness but varies considerably between jobs Leadership and intelligence Intelligence: “a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience.” (Gottfredson, 1997) The importance of intelligence: The evidence (metaanalysis of 96 studies; Judge, Colbert & Ilies, 2004) • intelligence and leader emergence: r = .25, (65 studies) • intelligence and leader effectiveness: r = .20, (75 studies) • observer-rated intelligence and leader emergence: r = . 60, (9 studies) Dark personality traits ‘‘Not all psychopaths are in prison. Some are in the Boardroom.’’ (Hare, 2002) Grandiosity, Need for Power, Egocentricity, Deceptiveness, Lack of Empathy, Irresponsibility, Impulsivity, and a Tendency to violate social norms Babiak, Neumann, and Hare (2010) – 4% of high level managers are psychopaths • Ability to charm, manipulate and mirror others Ohio and Michigan studies
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• Ohio (Fleishman, 1969), Michigan (Katz et al., 1950s) • Consideration (employee-orientation). The extent to which the leader demonstrates trust in subordinates, respect their ideas and shows consideration for their feelings. • Initiating structure (production-orientation). The extent to which the leader defines and structures their own role and subordinates’ roles. Workers viewed as a means for getting work accomplished. Ohio and Michigan studies Leader effectiveness Followers’ motivation Satisfaction with leader Job satisfaction Group/Org. performance Overall average .39 * .40 * .68 * .40 * .28 *.26 *.27 *.19 * .49 * .29 * .23 * .23 * Based on 400 correlations from 200 studies with 300 samples (Judge, et al.,2004) The Contingency Approach Common theme is that ‘it all depends’ on the situation: PEOPLE - their motivations, skills, relations, etc. TASK + TIME - structured / unstructured - time available CONTEXT - culture, etc
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Situational Leadership Theory Hersey and Blanchard (1977, 1988) – Leaders are effective when they select the right style for the ‘readiness’ of their followers – should adjust style Able High/moderate readiness = participative style High readiness = delegating style Unable Low readiness = telling style Low/moderate readiness = selling style Unmotivated Motivated Situational Leadership Significance Theory provides a useful and understandable framework for situational leadership but poor research support (Chen & Silverthorne, 2005; Thompson & Vecchio, 2009) The model suggests that there is no one best leadership style for all situations Manager’s leadership style must be adaptable and flexible to meet the changing needs of employees and situation –Know your style –Match your style to follower maturity and task situation House’s Path-Goal Theory Evans (1970), House and colleagues (1971, 1974, 1974) Theory is about how leaders motivate subordinates to accomplish designated goals
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Effective leaders clarify the path (remove obstacles) to help followers achieve their work goals Underlying assumption of path-goal theory is derived from expectancy theory : –Motivation = Value * Expectancy * Instrumentality (V.I.E) The Path-Goal model (based on Burns, 1978; Bass, 1990) Transactional Leaders Transformational Leaders • Charismatic & inspirational • Considerate to individuals • Intellectually stimulates Influence is based on inspiring and appealing to followers’ higher ideals and values • Uses contingent rewards • Manages by exception • Hands-off approach Influence is based on meeting followers’ needs and appealing to their selfinterest Based on Meta-Analysis (Judge and Piccolo, 2004; Wang et al., 2011) Some criticism of the research (e.g., Van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013) Full range Leadership Theory Transformational Leaders
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• Being a role model, showing respect and trust • Encouraging new ideas and innovative approaches • Creating a positive vision, showing enthusiasm & optimism, creating meaning • Listening to followers’ concerns, acting as a mentor &
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coach Authentic leadership Avolio and Gardner (2005) identified these dimensions: –positive moral perspective, –self-awareness, –balanced processing, –relational transparency, –positive psychological capital –authentic behaviour Transformational leadership – with ethical dimensions? Servant leadership –Greenleaf (1970, 1977) developed the philosophy of servant leadership that focuses on putting the needs of followers and stakeholders first. –Spears (2010) identified characteristics of servant leaders, including: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of others, and building community Adding something new….? –The correlation between transformational leadership and authentic leadership is high (.75) –The correlation between transformational and servant leadership, is moderate (.52) – Suggests empirical distinctness of servant leadership (Hoch et al. 2018) Leading with compassion
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– Shuck et al. (2019) argue for the role of compassion in leadership; six distinct compassionate leader behaviours: integrity, accountability, empathy, authenticity, presence, and dignity. –Compassionate leader behaviours = higher psychological well-being / employee engagement & lower turnover intentions –Generates trust through displays of empathy + strength (Simpson et al., 2022) ‘It takes courage and strength to be empathetic, and I’m proudly an empathetic, compassionate leader’(Jacinda Ardern, 2018) Wider Issues with Leadership Research Majority of the theories focus exclusively on the Leader Assume influence is purely top-down BUT what about the follower… Relational Approach - LMX Leader-member Exchange Theory (LMX) currently one of most researched areas Rather than focusing purely on leader or follower, LMX examines the relationship between the two. Premise is that the essence of leadership is the relationship that develops through social- exchanges This affects the quality of the relationship (low to high) LMX Differentiation: In-group/Out-group
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Leaders do not treat all followers equally Ingroup (or individual) are favoured by leader (more attention, greater share of resources) Outgroup (or individual) are less favoured – less satisfied, more likely to resign, lower performance (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) Effects of LMX Predicts: Job satisfaction Organisational Commitment Innovations/Creativity Lower stress Lower turnover intentions Meta-analyses (e.g., Martin et al., 2016) show LMX predicts followers’ –Task performance –Citizenship behaviour –Lower counterproductive performance Outcomes of LMX Meta-analysis, LMX with: • Job Satisfaction (88 samples) r = .49 • Leader Satisfaction (32 samples) r = .68 • Organisational Commitment (58 samples) r = .47 • Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (27 samples) r = .39 • Turnover Intentions (38 studies) r = -.39
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• Actual Turnover (9 studies) r = -.17 (Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brouer & Ferris, 2012) • Task Performance (146 samples): r = .30 • Citizenship Performance (97 samples) r = .34 • Counterproductive Performance (19 samples) r = -.24 • Objective Performance (20 samples) r = .24 (Martin, Guillaume, Thomas, Lee & Epitropaki, 2016) (Javidan et al., 2006) Does this apply to leading leaders? GLOBE Country Clusters Nordic Europe Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands Germanic Europe Germany, Switzerland (German speaking), Austria Eastern Europe Poland, Albania, Georgia, Greece, Kazakhstan, Russia, Slovenia, Hungary Latin Europe France, Switzerland (French speaking), Italy, Portugal, Spain, Israel
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Anglo Ireland, United Kingdom , Australia, New Zealand, United States, Canada, South Africa (white sample) Middle East Turkey, Egypt, Arabic Countries, Kuwait, Morocco, Qatar Latin America Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Venezuela Confucian Asia China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korean Rep., Singapore, Taiwan Southern Asia Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand Iran, India Sub-Sahara Africa Zimbabwe , Namibia, Zambia, Nigeria, South Africa (black sample) (Dorfman et al., 2004) Alternative Perspectives? –Leadership as managing meaning (symbolism; rhetoric; impression management)? –Leadership as an ‘attribution’ for performance ? (a “failure of leadership”)
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– Distributed leadership? Shared leadership across a team, no formal leader – Cultural differences in leadership & leader behaviours Lecture Summary Theory Tenets of leadership Trait Focuses on leader’s personality & skills Style / behaviour Focuses on leader’s characteristic behaviours Contingency Depends on the context (incl. followers) Transformational - transactional Depends on transforming followers or on instrumental exchanges Authentic ‘True to oneself’ with strong ethical dimension Servant Focuses on putting the needs of followers and stakeholders first Relational Focuses on the quality of the relationship between the leader and the followers
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