Week 1 Readings
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Arizona State University *
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Apr 3, 2024
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Ch. 1 Introduction to Assessment
Objectives
1.
Define assessment
What is assessment?
Assessment refers to any systematic procedure for collecting information that’s used
to make inferences of decisions about the characteristics of a person
Encompasses broad array of data collection methods from multiple sources to yield relevant, accurate, and reliable information
In counseling and other helping professions, assessment considered a process bc it is the continual practice of gathering info
o
Assessmrnt is ongoing process that may begin bf the first face to face contact and
continues throughout the course of the helping relationship
Assessment equated with testing
o
Assessment goes beyond giving tests; it’s a comprehensive process involving the integration of information from multiple data collection methods
o
Tests considered one method of collecting info within the larger framework of assessment
Methods for collecting assessment information – 3 categories
o
Interviews
o
Tests
o
Observations
Assessment also involves obtaining info from various sources
Emphasize using multiple methods in most assessments bc results of a single assessment instrument shouldn’t be the sole determinant 2.
Describe the various purposes of assessment
Purpose
Why assess? To gather information about a client; information needed depends on the purpose or reason for assessment
4 general purposes of assessment:
o
Screening
Quick; involves single procedure. Instrument, used to determine whether individual has high risk of having a problem and needs more in-depth assessment at that time
Screening doesn’t detect a specific problem/disorder or its seriousness; rather it provides counselors with preliminary info identifying those with a high probability of having a problem
Exp. Counselor has initial concern about the potentiall for substance abuse with a client; if client scores a clinically significant lvl, the the counselor would conduct a more thorough assessment to determine types, level of use, withdrawal potential, need for detox, and best options
for treatment planning
o
Identification and diagnosis
In counseling assessment conducted as a means of identifying or diagnosis problems, symptoms, or disorders
Diagnosis – A detailed analysis of one’s strengths and weakness, with the
general goal of arriving at a classification decision
The assessment process for diagnosis encompasses use of instruments and strategies to identify a client’s problem areas that need targeting for interventions
o
Intervention planning
i.e. Treatment planning
involves deciding on a course of action facilitating client change and help improve the client’s outcome
the purpose of assessment is to gather information to determine the most effective interventions that address and resolve the client’s specific areas of concern
o
Progress and outcome evaluation
Counselors may use various assessment instruments and strategies to monitor one’s progress and evaluate outcome
Determine if interventions are working
When intervention program completed, counselors may conduct an outcome evaluation to determine if the intervention was effective and if clients achieved their goals
First step in progress and outcome eval is establishing a baseline measure
of the client’s condition
3.
Describe the broad categories of data collection methods and the various sources of assessment information
4.
Explain the importance of integrating multiple methods and multiple sources of assessment information
Multiple Methods and Multiple Sources
As counselors we are often unaware of what the end picture will look like for a client, but we have to begin to piece together the part that will aim toward a solution to the presenting problems
Selecting and utilizing multiple methods of data collection, referred to as multimodal approach to assessment, are essential to have a system of checks and balances for info gathered
In most assessment utilizing multiple methods and multiple sources is important for obtaining info that is thorough enough to produce an in-depth understanding of the individual
Counselors should never solely rely on the results of a single assessment instrument or strategy to
make important decisions about clients
Methods
o
Interviews
Meeting face to face critical
Interview range from completely unstructured interactions, to semi structured interactions to highly formal structured interviews
Purpose to father background info relevant to reason for assessment
w/o interview data, info from tests and observations is without context and meaningless
o
Tests
Instruments designed to measure specific attributes of an individual
Counselors may use data collected from tests, checklists, questionnaires, or inventories for purposes such as screening for emotional, behavioral or learning problems
Test results useful in assessment because they may reveal vital diagnostic info that would otherwise not have been uncovered through other assessment methods
o
Observation
Watching and recording the behavior of an individual in a particular environment
Useful for collecting info about one’s emotional responses, social interactions, motor skills, and job performance, etc.
5.
List and describe the steps in the assessment process
The Process
Assessment is a complex problem solving process that necessitates collecting and integrating information about an individual in order to make decisions or inferences about that person
First and most important step is to identify the client’s problem(s) to be addressed and the reason for assessment
o
This clarification promotes a counselors select the methods and sources of info that will provide an adequate basis for arriving at useful conclusions and recommendations
1. Identify the Problem
o
To proceed to the next step in the counseling process, the counselor must have a clear idea about what the problem is and the reasons client is being seen
o
Referral sources can help clarify the nature and severity of the client’s problem
2. Select and Implement Assessment Methods
o
Interviews used in almost all sessions
o
Counselors choose from numerous formal and informal assessment instruments and strategies based on reason for referral, context, and adequacy of instruments
o
Although there are no set guidelines for which or how many assessment instruments or strategies to use, the more methods used to collect data, the more accurate and objective the info obtained
3. Evaluate the Assessment Information
o
Involves scoring, interpreting, and integrating information obtained from all assessment methods and sources to answer the referral question
o
Counselors need knowledge and skills in basic statistical concepts, psychometric principles, and procedures for interpreting assessment results
4. Report Assessment Results and Make Recommendations
o
Final step
o
Describing the individual being assessed and their situation, reporting general hypotheses
about the indv, support those hypotheses with assessment info, and proposing recommendations related to the original reason for referral
6.
Describe the competencies required by counselors for the effective use of assessment instrument
Competencies Required for Assessment
To develop competency, you must practice your skills under supervision
Check state law to determine if scoring and interpretation of intelligence test falls under your scope of practice
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First step with every instrument is to read the test manual and determine what training is needed
o
Second to consult with supervisor about opportunity for training and supervised practice
The Association for Assessment and Research in Counseling published the Responsibilities of Users of Standardized Tests (RUST) which describes the qualifications professional need to probide valuable, ethical, and effective assessment services
o
Purpose of Testing
o
Characteristics of Tests
o
Strengths and Conditions of Test Use
o
Role of Test Selectors, Administrators, Scorers, and Interpreters
7.
Describe the historical context of assessment
Historical Perspectives
Test movement in the US began at the turn of the 20
th
century tests have been used for years
2200 BC the Chinese used essay ecams to help select civil service employees
Philosophies of Socrates and Plato emphasized importance of assessing an individual’s competencies and aptitudes in vocational selection
Fitzherbert (1470-1538) identified some items to screen individuals with learning disabilities from those w/o
Juan Huarte (1530-1589) first author to suggest formal intelligence testing
Thr Victorian era marked the beginning of modern science and witnessed the influence of Darwinism biology on the studies of individuals
8.
Describe the application of computer technology in the field of assessment
Computer Based Assessment
Use of computers viewed as a way to engance an advance the field of assessment
Though computers were initially use in the processing of test data, computer based assessment now encompasses a broad range of operations and procedures such as:
o
Computer Administration of Assessment Instruments
o
Automated Test Scoring
o
Computer Generated Reports and Narrative’s: Automated interpretations that are generated based on user input and resulting test scores
o
Computer Adaptive Tests: Tests that are specifically tailored to an individual’s ability lvl; Using a computer adaptive tests, test takers have a more personalized assessment experience in a controlled environment
o
Computer Simulations
Internet Based Assessment
Motivation for development of many of these sites is easy to understand
o
Commercial assessment sites can make more money bc the internet offers easy access to large numbers of participants
Researchers benefit from internet based assessment because
o
They have access to large number of participants; the costs associated with traditional assessment methods are eliminated, the costs to develop, publish, and maintain web based surveys lower
Ch. 4 Methods and Sources of Assessment Information
Objectives
1.
Identify and describe the data collection methods used in assessment
The methods of data collection can be broadly categorized as: tests, interviews, or observations
Counselors may choose from a multitude of formal and informal instruments and strategies to collect info o
Use of collateral sources and documents
The methods and sources of info can vary from assessment to assessment, depending upon the purpose for, the setting, need of client, and availability and utility of methods and sources of info
2.
Identify and describe the various sources of assessment information
If the client is reluctant to disclose information, the assessment may primarily include info from collateral sources and records
Recommended for most assessments, counselors use more than one method and source of
assessment information
3.
Explain the difference b/w formal and informal assessment instruments and strategies
In some cases counselors use an informal assessment process to gain basic information
Assessment methods that are informal include the use of instruments and strategies that are developed without proven reliability and validity
o
No standardization of administration, scoring, or interpretation
o
Draw on one’s professional judgement o
i.e. unstructured interviews, informal observation, projective drawings, checklists, work samples, counselor made tests, and questionnaires
methods of assessment categorized as formal generally involve the use of assessment instruments that are standardized
o
structured material, uniform administration procedures, and consistent methods for scoring and interpretation
o
primary purpose for standardizing an assessment instrument is to make sure all variables are under the control of the examiner are uniform as possible
An instrument that is standardized implies a lvl of technical quality or that the instrument is psychometrically sound
4.
Explain the importance of using multiple methods and multiple sources of information in assessment
Using a combination of formal and informal assessment tools is recommended to provide an in depth evaluation of clients
The right mix of formal and informal will vary
5.
Describe the initial interview and explain its purpose in the assessment process
The practice of interviewing covers a broad range, from unstructured interactions, to semi-
structured interactions, to highly formal structured interviews
purpose of interviews to gather background information relevant to the client’s current problems
Obtaining background info helps counselors under context for the client’s current concerns, longevity, and tailor plans for intervention
Interview begins prior to other assessment methods, and serves a s abasis for selecting other instruments and strategies in the process
Continually collected throughout the assessment process
The initial interview is considered the cornerstone of assessment – w/o interview data, there’s no context in which to interpret results from other assessment methods
6.
Explain the differences among structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews
Structured
Rigorous and least flexible
Structured interviews consist of specific questions formulated ahead of time
Habe specific instructions and guidelines for administering, scoring, and interpreting results
Counselors required to ask each client exactly the same questions in the same manner and not deviate from the text
Especially helpful to beginning counselors learning the process of interviewing
Advantages
o
Ensure specific information will be collected
o
Don’t require much training since simply reading
o
Bc of standardization, they improve the reliability of the assessment process
Semi-Structured
Consists of a scripted set of questions; interviews allowed flexibility
Interviewers allowed to probe and expand on the interviewee’s responses
Unstructured
Most frequently used type of interview among practicing counselors and psychologists
Considered unstructured bc it doesn’t rely on a set of specified questions
Not an agenda less process
o
Interviewers assess several domains including the presenting problem, family background, social and academic history, medical history, and previous counselor or psych experiences
Advantages:
o
Interviewer free to pursue important but unanticipated topics
o
Interviewee has more choice in deciding what to talk about
o
More opportunity for rapport building
Because of the flexibility, counselors able to adapt the interview to pursue certain problems or topics in depth, while limiting focus on topics deemed unproblematic
7.
Describe the categories and characteristics of tests used in the assessment process
The use of tests can be controversial and creates a lvl of suspicion
Many tests can have a large impact on one’s life path > High Stakes
In the helping professions, educational and psychological tests are used to provide a measure of various individual attributes such as cognitive functioning, knowledge,s kills, abilities, or personality traits
Tests utilizied in assessment for multiple reasons:
o
Screening for emotional, behavioral, or learning problems
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o
Classifying an individual into a certain descriptive category
o
Selecting or placing individuals into training, educational, or vocational orgrams
o
Assisting in diagnosis: of a mental disorder
o
Assisting in intervention or treatment planning
o
Evaluating effective of intervention or course of action
o
Hypothesis testing research studies
Categories of Test
Tests can be categorized based on a variety of aspects, such as the area of assessment, whether it’s
standardized, how scores are interpreted, how it’s administered, and item type
Area of Assessment
Tests can be classified according to the area of assessment such as:
o
Intellectual Ability Tests
o
Achievement Tests
o
Aptitude Tests
o
Career of Employment Inventories
o
Personality Inventories
Standardized and Nonstandardized Tests
Formal v informal
Standardized tests those that have structured test materials, specific instructions for administration, and specific scoring methods
o
Also developed using a large, representative norm group
Nonstandardized tests are informally constructed tests w/o proven reliability or validity
o
Teacher made tests, projective drawings, checklists, questionaires
Individual and Group Tests
Tests can be categorized based on how they’re administered
Maximum Performance and Typical Performance Tests
Sine tests evaluate test taker responses on the basis of correctedness > Maximum performance
Many instruments used in psychological assessment aren’t evaluative and don’t have items with correct or incorrect answers > Typical performance tests
Verbal and Nonverbal Tests
Objective and Subjective Tests
An objective (structured) test contains selected response items (multiple choice, true/false)
Subjective tests consist of constructed response items (essays, portfolios) that require judgemental decisions
Other Terminology
The term test should be used only for those procedures in which test takers’ responses are evaluated based on their correctness or quality
Tests that don’t evaluate individual on the basis of correct and incorrect responses may be referred to as inventories, questionnaires, surverys, checklists, schedules, or projective techniques
Computer Based Tests
One type of computer based test commonly used in achievement testing is computer adaptive tests
Computer adaptive test is a test that tailors test questions to the ability of each test taker
Each time a test taker answers a question, the computer adjusts to the individual’s responses when
determining which question to present next
8.
Define observation and describe the various observation strategies and approaches used in the assessment process
Observation is monitoring the actions of others or oneself in a particular context and making a record of what is observed
Counselors may use formal assessment instruments, computer observation software, or informal strategies to conduct observations
Formal and Informal Observation
o
Formal – Highly structured process in which the observer decides ahead of time who will
be observed, what behavior will be observed, when and where the observation will take place, and how the behavior will be recorded
o
Informal – much less structured and occurs whenever professionals make notes of a client
behavior
Direct and Indirect Observation
o
Direct observation is a firsthand account of actual behavior
o
Indirect observation rely on reported observations of behaviors by others who have direct
contact with the individual
Natural and Contrived Settings
o
Naturalistic observation – naturally occurring settings
o
Contrived – (analogue assessment) occurring in a lab or other setting
Aims to evaluate behavior in a theoretical situation developed to mimic a real life
situation
Unobtrusive and Participant Observation
o
Observation said to be unobtrusive when there is no interaction b/w the observer and those being observed; not effected by the observation
o
Participant Observation entails the observer both watching and interacting with the individual as part of the observational situation
Methods of Recording
o
Method of observation selected depends on whether the counselor uses formal or informal observation
o
Formal observation: structured methods of data recording are used such as event recording, duration recording, time sampling, and rating scales
o
Informal: counselor may use anecdotal records or raw notes of client’s behavior
Event Recording
o
AKA frequency recording
o
Simplest o
Requires an observer to observe, count, and record the number of times a behavior has occurred
o
Best suited to recording occurrences of low rate behaviors (have a beginning and end, don’t often occur)
Duration Recording
o
Use when it is more important to know how long a behavior occurs rather than the frequency of the behavior
o
Length of time of a behavior from beginning to end is tracked
o
Applicable for recording sustained behaviors that have clear beginnings and clear endings
Time Sampling
o
Time sampling (interval recording) divides observation periods into specific time intervals; then behavior is coded as being present or absent
Rating Sales
o
Used to describe and evaluate one’s specific behaviors
o
Observer rates each behavior to indicate either its quality of how often the behavior occurred
o
Efficient in collecting info about a variety of behaviors
Anecdotal Records
o
Brief descriptive narrative of an individual’s behavior that is recorded after the behavior occurs
o
May be a running account of what one says and does during a particular period of time, or a single record of a significant incident
Self-Monitoring
o
One of most commonly used assessment approaches
o
Defined as the systematic observation and recording of one’s own behavior
Collateral Sources
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