82410154 Never Caught

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Running head: NEVER CAUGHT ERICA DUNBAR 1 Never Caught Erica Dunbar Name Institutional Affiliation

NEVER CAUGHT ERICA DUNBAR 2 Never Caught Erica Dunbar The challenges of slavery are well documented in history, but scholars are now becoming more aware of how gender and race influenced the experiences of slaves. In particular, the confluence of slavery and a patriarchal society greatly shaped the experiences of female slaves in the 1770s. The issue not only impacted the lives of female slaves, but it also influenced their emancipation and their life after securing their freedom. Race also influenced the experiences of slaves. The experiences of mulattos were different from ordinary slaves. These issues are highlighted in Erica Dunbar’s monograph Never Caught . The book provides a detailed account of the life of Ona Maria Judge and her journey to freedom. Her gender and race were both advantageous and containing factors. Dunbar’s book also highlighted the racial tension between the different races as the abolition movement continued to grow. A review of Never Caught provides insight on how gender and mulatto-black inequality influenced the experiences of African Americans in slavery and emancipation as well as the racial tension between free African-Americans and Caucasians in the 1770s. There was a distinct difference between how female and male slaves were treated. In Never Caught , the highlights some advantages female slaves had. In the South, male slaves were mainly resigned to working in the field. Their work was mainly picking cotton, farming and manual labor in the plantations. Very few male slaves were allowed to work on domestic house chores. Contrarily, the percentage of female slaves who did domestic house chores were higher. Betty and Ona were examples of female slaves who were trained to work on house chores (Dunbar, 4). Betty was a seamstress while Ona was a domestic handmaid. In a way, gender was an advantage to female slaves with regard to the type of slave labor they provided. Working in

NEVER CAUGHT ERICA DUNBAR 3 the household was a role given mainly to the favored slaves, who were mainly female slaves with some few male exceptions. Unfortunately, living close to the white masters was also disadvantageous to female slaves. White men commonly sexually assaulted female slaves who worked in households. In Never Caught , Betty was worried about whether the new master, George Washington, was the type of master who had sexual relations with his slaves. Betty had already gotten a mulatto child after non-consensual sexual relations with a white man (Dunbar, 3). The book suggests that the practice was not uncommon, highlighting an additional torment that female slaves had to endure. Ona was also informed about Thomas Law’s proclivity for sexual relations with slaves. She became worried that she would become sexually assaulted by Mr Law after she was bequeathed to Eliza after her wedding (Dunbar, 76). It was one of the reasons why she decided to ran away from slavery. Gender also seemed to influence the emancipation movement. Philadelphia enacted legislation that allowed slaves to become free after six months. The attorney general had informed the Washingtons that his slaves had claimed their freedom based on a statute in Philadelphia law (Yale Law, 1780) . In response, the Washingtons devised a plan to send their slaves back to Mount Vernon before the six months elapsed in Philadelphia (Lear, 1791) . The practice helped prevent slaves from gaining freedom in the usual manner. The only option slaves were left with was escaping. Successful attempts at running away were made mostly by males for two reasons. First, escaping was a difficult and arduous journey from the South to Northern states with restrictions on the recapture of slaves. As a result, men were more successful because they could handle the physical strain of running from slave collectors or bloodhounds. Ona was told that most slaves were exposed to obstacles like dehydration, malnutrition, exposure and

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NEVER CAUGHT ERICA DUNBAR 4 injury (Dunbar, 86). Ona also noted that female slaves were less likely to run away, especially when they had small children. As a result, there were more male emancipated slaves in the North. Race was also a factor that influenced the experience of slaves in the 1770s. Slaves were divided into mulattos and negro slaves. According to Reece (2018), mulattos were slaves of mixed-race after sexual relations between whites and their negro slaves. Their fairer completion meant that mulattos were favored for non-menial labor while negro slaves mainly worked in the field. Betty was a mulatto and that is why she worked in the Curtis and Washington households as a seamstress. Her son Austin was also a mulatto. Even though males were mainly used in menial labor, his mixed-race gained him favor from the Washingtons. In the book, he was even trusted with $11.66 to make the trip to Mount Vernon on his own (Dunbar, 52). Ona was also a mulatto and she was also favored by Martha Washington. As a trusted handmaid, she was even allowed to sleep in the room next to the Washingtons to take care of Martha and her grandchildren (Dunbar, 43). Ona also seemed to gain favor due to her mixed race. Even Mr Whipple, a renown slave collector, took a liking to Ona and chose to negotiate her freedom with the Washingtons rather than capture her with brute force. Many other slaves did not get the same opportunity. A slave advertisement highlights how negro slaves were often captured and jailed before they could be retrieved by their masters (Milledgeville Federal Union, March 14, 1833). There is a clear difference between how the two were treated after being confronted by slave collectors. Even after freedom, mulattos like Ona found it easier to get jobs compared to other blacks with darker skin tones. The issues of race and gender are also evident in the slave advertisements made in newspapers at the time. Advertisements for female mulatto slaves were different from those of

NEVER CAUGHT ERICA DUNBAR 5 negro slaves. An advertisement by Alfred M. George who offered a reward for a mulatto slave who he wanted to be delivered to him or placed in a safe jail (Milledgeville Federal Union, September 15, 1842). He seems to be concerned about her safety and even requests that she is lodged in a safe jail where no harm may befall her. Even the advertisement for Ona Judge describes her as delicately formed and requesting that she be delivered directly to the Washingtons rather than being placed in jail. They are willing to even reimburse the travel costs if she travels for a long distance (American Daily Advertiser, May 25, 1796). There is a clear contrast with male negro slaves who were even unwanted by their masters. An advertisement of the public auction of Jim, a slave whose owner did not want him anymore (Southern Planter, August 11, 1832). The law allowed him to be auctioned if he was unclaimed by the owner for more than six months. He may even have been bought by a harsher master. As more slaves were being emancipated, the racial tensions between African Americans and Whites continued to grow. One challenge was that even though the slaves had gotten their freedom, they were still being exposed to the same indignities they did before. They were still not granted equal protection under the law and they had limited citizenship. Ona recounts her experiences as a free woman as more difficult than when she was a slave. As a slave, Washington’s could afford to pay servants who would do the difficult tasks, leaving her to handle the children and care for Martha as she was ageing. As a free woman, she had to scrub floors and perform difficult tasks for a meager wage (Dunbar, 99). The book notes that despite the challenges, freed black slaves enjoyed the emancipation despite the slow progress of equality. It also freed her from the likelihood of regular sexual assault from perverted masters like Thomas Law who already had a reputation.

NEVER CAUGHT ERICA DUNBAR 6 In an interview, Ona stated that she was happy with her decision because even though she had to work harder as a free woman that she did as a slave, she was able to enjoy the freedom of associating with others. While she was in Pennsylvania, immediately after her escape, she was able to interact with emancipated slaves who guided her the best decision. She then eve acknowledged some abolitionists who helped her (Adam, 1845) . In particular, Captain Bolles whose ship she used on her way to Portsmouth. She acknowledged that she did not tell anyone how Bolles helped her because she was afraid he would be punished (GWTI) . She also acknowledged that she had to escape quickly because of the declining health of the Washingtons and the arrangement for her to transferred to Eliza. The escape also allowed her to gain religious freedoms, which she was restricted for fear it would poison her mind to seek freedom. Both the Freedom on the Move and Never Caught provides insight into different experiences slaves had based on their gender and their race. An advantage women had over men is that they were more likely to avoid menial work. Instead, many of them were restricted to domestic chores. The few men who also had the same benefit were mulattos like Austin. Ona was lucky to be born female and a mulatto in the Washington household. In an interview, she even acknowledged that her life as a slave was less difficult. She was favored by Martha and she was even allowed to sleep in the room next to theirs at night. Austin, also a mulatto, was also favored to the extent that he could travel to Mount Vernon on his own. Unfortunately, female slaves were subjected to non-consensual sexual assault by white masters. Ona’s mum, Betty bore Austin from non-consensual sexual relations with an undisclosed white master. Likewise, Ona heard rumors that Thomas Law frequently sexually assaulted his slaves. It was one of the reasons why she ran away. The advertisements also seem to suggest that light mulatto slave, particularly women, were treated differently from negro male slaves. The latter were often captures,

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NEVER CAUGHT ERICA DUNBAR 7 imprisoned or auctions. However, advertisements of the latter in the appendix show concern by the slave owner on the condition of the slaves. Ona is another example where the Washingtons were willing to pay extra for her to be safely returned. Gender was also a reason why most of the slaves who ran away were males. The tough journey discouraged most of them. Dunbar also noted that having children also weakened the resolve of female slaves to ran away.

NEVER CAUGHT ERICA DUNBAR 8 References Adam, T. R. (1845, May 22). Washington's Runaway Slave. Retrieved from The Granite Freeman. Dunbar, E. A. (2017). Never Caught. New York: 37 Ink. GWTI. (n.d.). Fugitive Slave Act of 1793. Retrieved from George Washington Teacher Institute, Mount Vernon: https://www.mountvernon.org/education/primary-sources-2/article/fugitive-slave-act-of- 1793/ Lear, T. (1791, April 24). To George Washington from Tobias Lear. Retrieved from Founders Online: https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-08-02-0099 Reece, R. L. (2018). Genesis of U.S. Colorism and Skin Tone Stratification: Slavery, Freedom, and Mulatto-Black Occupational Inequality in the Late 19th Century. The Review of Black Political Economy, 45 (1), 3-21. Washington, G. (1971, April 12). From George Washington to Tobias Lear. Retrieved from Founders Online: https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-08-02-0062 Yale Law. (1780, March 5). Pennsylvania - An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery, 1780. Retrieved from Yale Law School: The Avalon Project: https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/pennst01.asp

NEVER CAUGHT ERICA DUNBAR 9 Appendix

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