Marshall Plan Essay
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Marshall Plan Essay
In Europe, divisions arose between the United States and the Soviet Union, and in response to a
blockade, the United States created the Marshall Plan, which became the cornerstone to containment
in Western Europe. Once WWII ended, the time to evaluate the devastation,redistribution of lands,
and rebuilding of Europe was the next task of the Allied Powers that needed completion. The United
States
, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union
, met in Potsdam to divide the new lands of Europe
equally among them, with Berlin getting the same treatment. These new regions became known as
Western and Eastern Germany, with the democratic powers controlling the west, and the Soviet
Union controlling the east.
After WWII, the threat of the spread of communism was on the minds of many democratic powers.
When tensions rose between the United States and the Soviets, a policy of containment was enacted
and can be defined as, "A United States policy using numerous strategies to prevent the spread of
communism abroad. A component of the Cold War
, this policy was a response to a series of moves
by the Soviet Union to enlarge communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, and Vietnam"
(Boundless.com).
When it came to rebuilding Europe the west
...show more content...
More aid was given to more industrial powers, since it was believed that their success would trickle
down and make the whole area successful. An additional 13 billion dollars was given under the
Marshall Plan. One of the main goals of the Marshall Plan was to contain the increasing influence of
communism, by the Soviets, in Europe. Through it years of enforcement, to the end of its time, the
Marshall plan played a pivotal role in containing communism. After the Marshall Plan ended, the
rise of communism in western europe diminished. In terms of its goal, the Marshall plan was a
success and it brought prosperity to all who partook in
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Marshall Plan After World War II
Marshall Plan was also invoked in the third world, global poverty, American inner cities, the
Balkans, the Middle East, and, finally, Iraq. It can be said that "Marshall Plan" has become a
metaphor for any very large scale government program that is designed to solve a specific social
problem.
Is today a new Marshall Plan possible to be able to deal with current problems of the world or do
conditions like those that made the Marshall Plan a success after World War II exist today?
The first section of this paper addresses the importance of Marshall Plan; why and how the program
was adopted and principles of the plan.
The next part highlights what its essential features were, and why it succeeded in Western Europe
,
concluding that it had
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The Marshall Plan Essay
The Marshall Plan
First and foremost, a great deal of Europe's success would not have happened without its initial aid
from the United States. After helping destroy so much of the continent, the U.S. pumped billions and
billions of dollars back into the European economy through The Marshall Plan. It was named after
Secretary of State George C. Marshall, who said "The world of suffering people looks to us for
leadership. Their thoughts, however, are not concentrated alone on this problem. They have more
immediate and terribly pressing concerns where the mouthful of food will come from, where they
will find shelter tonight, and where they will find warmth
. Along with the great problem of
maintaining the peace we must solve the
...show more content...
And even if factories and machines and capital goods were destroyed, it wasn't a huge loss. This
permitted companies, along with money from United States assistance, to buy newer, more
technologically advanced equipment. Without U.S. help, they would not have had the financial
capacities to get this new industrial equipment, which proved to be faster, more efficient, and safer
(Kindleberger, 113). All of the building and rebuilding that needed to be done because of the
bombing destruction helped sustain long term economic growth. Building trades prospered and grew
dramatically as entire cities like Stuttgart had to start from scratch (Wegs, 66). This meant that many
jobs would become available, and there were many people available to work. There were several
reasons for the mass quantities of laborers eager to get to work. Soldiers had returned home from the
war with no job to come home to because of either destruction or replacement workers. Refugees
fleeing from the eastern portion of Europe occupied many countries in the west, especially West
Germany, bringing about more bodies for work. Even workers from southern Europe came to work.
Europe's population increased by nearly 60 million thirty years after the start of WWII (Wegs, 67).
There was plenty of cheap labor. Because of the cheap labor of the immigrants and refugees, many
businesses could keep costs low, turning outstanding profits, and
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How Successful Was The Marshall Plan
The United States saw the need to help Europe rebuild and came up with the Marshall Plan. The
Marshall Plan gave roughly $13 billion in aid for Europe to rebuild its economy after the end of
World War II. The Marshall Plan spanned over a four year period beginning in 1948. The United
States have many goals with the Marshal Plan which included: to remove trade barriers, rebuild
destroyed regions, modernize industry, have Europe booming again, and prevent the spread of
communism. The plan required a lot of different things but the main concern would be they adopted
the modern business procedures.
The largest recipient of the aid was the United Kingdom, followed by France and West Germany.
The aid was divided by using the per capita basis. The larger amounts were given to the major
industrial powers since the goal of the plan was that their recovery was essential for general
European recovery. Aid was also directed towards our Allied nations with less for the other nations.
The initiative is named after Secretary of State George Marshall. The plan had
...show more content...
Although most small towns and villages had not suffered as much damage, the destruction of
transportation left them economically isolated. None of these problems could be easily remedied, as
most nations engaged in the war had exhausted their treasuries in its execution. The only major
powers whose infrastructure had not been significantly harmed in World War II were the United
States and Canada. They were much more prosperous than before the war but exports were a small
factor in their economy. Much of the Marshall Plan aid would be used by the Europeans to buy
manufactured goods and raw materials from the United States and Canada. For this reasoning, the
United States and Canada would be better off than the rest of the
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The Marshall Plan Essay
The Marshall Plan was implemented in 1948 in order to aid Eastern Europe in terms of its economy.
In this investigation, I will explore factors that could be considered the main goal of the Marshall
Plan. While there have been historians who argued on whether what is the true intentions of plan, I
believe that the true intention was to revive Europe
's economy. The plan was enacted during the
beginning of the Cold War
; causing historians to believe that the plan was used to combat the Soviet
Union, but does not explain why European countries prosper with aid. As European countries
prospered with aid, it created a relationship with the United States
, giving benefits to both countries.
The Marshall Plan is a plan in which was implemented in Europe in order to revive the European
Economy, as it was its main goal. The Marshall Plan, or the European Recovery Plan, was aimed
towards "reviving Europe's state of economy" (Fauri, Francesca, and Tedeschi pg.167). After World
War II, As Europe's economy declined, producers in Europe lacked confidence in their products.
Europe's economy had suffered the "absence of goods in the market, political instability, and fear of
financial chaos;" however, as to what caused this conflict was by the lack of confidence of making
income (Eichengreen pg.15). The United States saw this as an opportunity to prosper their own
economy and spread their corporations overseas. As such, the Marshall plan was enacted in order to
"liberalize production,
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Western Europe: The Marshall Plan
The Marshall Plan was a way to deal with offer assistance to war destroyed European governments
to remake system and give occupations. This wander was a meander of the Truman Administration
and it passed on General George Marshall's Name since he made the principle addresses proposing
this course of action and in light of the way that his named passed on such an extraordinary measure
of weight. The plan itself gave just parts of what countries expected to reconstruct, be it steel, crude
materials, seeds for harvests, hardware or coal just to give some examples things. Every country
gave a rundown of what it required and the US then worked with every country to organize what
was accessible. The Marshall Plan helped financially make Western Europe,
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Europe: The Marshall Plan
The economy of Europe was crippled after the war and one of the first actions taken by the Eastern
powers was the Marshall Plan. The countries that participated were given a startup fund and were
brought into the United States' economical orbit helping them get back up on their feet. Germany for
instance was reduced to rubble by Allied bombing leaving businesses and homes in pieces. They had
to build from the ground up but with the help of the US and other nations. After the combination of
the 3 Western Allies zones they created a single new currency the Deutsche Mark. The Soviets
feared that this would crucially devalue their already hyperinflated Reichsmarks that were used in
the east. This crippled the Soviets hold on Berlin as well as Germany
.
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The Marshall Plan And The Truman Doctrine
believe that the Marshall Plan was in fact a method of guaranteeing that European markets allowed
for US exports and that Marshall himself alluded to this. It also states that the Marshall plan was a
basis for many US foreign policies that are instituted today, wherein governments aid other
governments without any assurance that the aid will be directed towards those that require it. This
source is useful as it shows an alternative reasoning behind the US's actions, that their intentions
were not entirely altruistic in that the Marshall Plan was implemented solely for the benefit of the
US and that the Marshall Plan was criticised for there being no guarantee of any benefit to other
nations. b) Evaluation of Sources Source B: This source is from the speech delivered by President
Truman himself to the US Congress on the 12th of March 1947. This speech was written and
delivered in order to announce the Truman Doctrine, outline the purpose, reasoning and need for the
Truman Doctrine and convince the US Congress and people to support the rhetoric. This source is of
value as it is from the president himself of the time, Harry S Truman, deeming it to be a reliable
source of information of the time. It shows the US's intentions behind the implementation of the
Truman Doctrine, which were to protect Greece, Turkey and the Middle East from falling to
Communism, to uphold and put into effect the principles of the Charter of the United Nations and to
assist and support
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Effects Of The Marshall Plan
Following World War II, all of Europe was left in a clutter of disarray. Instead of watching Europe
endure the hardships left from the war, the United States went to Europe's aid. From 1947 to 1952,
European nations experienced a time of massive growth. The Marshall Plan called for the nations of
Europe to draw up a program for economic and political recovery from the war. The plan was a
response to American concerns that communist parties were growing stronger across Europe and
that the Soviets might intervene. The Marshall Plan also reflected the belief that US aid for
European economic recovery would create strong democracies and open new markets for American
goods. After World War II, The European Recovery Program was instrumental in
economically
...show more content...
Since Germany was immensely affected by the war, the least the US could do was run to their aid.
Since WWI, the United States had never wavered in supporting Germany, but US citizens argued
that the government felt obligated to assist them. Surprisingly, Western Germany was both
economically and politically stable. East Germany, on the other hand, was under the leadership of
Russian dictator, Joseph Stalin. He formed the Eastern German government into a centralized and
dictatorial regime. Stalin refused to accept aid from The Marshall Plan because he feared the US
was plotting another anti–communist attack. General Marshall then felt the need to confront Stalin
himself. Marshall approached Stalin saying, "The United States hoped to aid those countries that are
suffering from economic deterioration which, if unchecked, might lead to economic collapse and the
consequent elimination of any chance of democratic survival." (Nhd). He continued by stating that
he "hoped to rebuild the basis of cooperation, which had existed during the war, and that he had
come to Stalin with hope, feeling that if they cleared away some of the tension it would be a good
beginning for the restoration of that understanding." (Nhd). However the tables turned when Stalin
unexpectedly replied back, "Only the first skirmishes and brushes of reconnaissance forces on
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Marshall Plan Research Paper
Jessica B. Sanchez
Dr. Contreras
History 115
July 20, 20216
History 115 Final
After WWII the United States had replaced Europe as the ideal model for Progress. The media
glorified what living in the US would be like; having a refrigerator, and a car. This became
increasingly unrealistic especially when Latin Americans could barely afford to dream of having a
refrigerator, let alone a car. To Latin America being next to a newly developed superpower has
starting to have its downsides, especially after the US announced the Marshall Plan. The Marshall
Plan spent a large amount of funds to Europe to help rebuild after the devastating war, although
Latin America was allied with the US, they had only received two percent between 1946 and
1959.
...show more content...
Later in the year in June, Castro bought Russian oil, the US oil refineries refused flat out not to
process the "red" oil, as a result Fidel forcibly took possession of the oil refineries. The United
States countered this action with ending their purchases of Cuban sugar, which was actually
responsible for three quarters of Cuba's export profits. Cuba in return taking more US owned land,
many taken from sugar mills, mines, and even telephone and electric companies. During the 1960s,
the United States had enough and declared embargo on all trade with
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Arguments Against The Marshall Plan
The Marshall Plan has been fruitful.All trusts/funds sent to Europe have been used for their
proposed purposes.Almost all vast Western Eurpoean Countries have profited from this
arrangement.
It was for the best that the Marshall arrangement was put enthusiastically, Europe is gradually
becoming more idependant.It is urgent for Europe to open trade, bussiness and other organizations –
for Europe herself as well as for us, America [and others] too. With the guide cash, Europe is
modifying as well as fortifying peace between her countries.And , God forbide, if America needs to
go to war, we will have Western Europe as support and allies.– America will have their loyalties.
As we are helping reconstruct Europe,we are additionally keeping the
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Marshall Plan Achievements
In 1941 an Army chief of staff during World War ll, named George Catlett Marshall purchased The
Marshall House (Dodona Manor) in Leesburg, Virginia. Marshall was a special envoy to China,
Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, and namesake of the Marshall Plan. He is best known as
the architect of the post–World ll which was incorporated as the Marshall Plan. Marshall has
significantly affected many individuals due to his achievements within the Marshall Plan, his moral
character and his role within serving America. George Marshall is the most respected solider in
American history due to his supreme leadership abilities. His economic recovery program was
known as the Marshall Plan which presented him with Nobel Peace Price in the 1950s. The famous
Marshall Plan was an American initiative announced in 1947 that the United States gave
approximately 13 billion (130 billion in current dollar value) to Europe to AID. Europe
approximately 13 billion dollars (130 billion in current dollar value) to AID Europe. It was to
economically support and rebuild European economies after the end of World
...show more content...
Marshall demonstrated multiple problem–solving skills that left him the highest respect from his
soldiers. For years, Marshall had been taking charge and coming up with important decisions that
take place in protecting millions of people. From a very young aged he learned how to lead
individuals due to his decisive mind and strength within his character. In 1917, he had helped the
United States with World War I with his sharp leadership and problem solving skills as the chief of
operations. The impact that Marshall had with his strength followed through to when he was sworn
in as chief of staff for the U.S Army in 1939. His strategic planning and logical thinking made him
built the army into succesful trained solders of
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Marshall Plan Effectiveness
The most effective Cold War plan was the famous Marshall Plan. Some historians may believe that
the most effective plan was Containment, but they are wrong. These plans are considered effective
for the lives the protect, the safety the provided, and the money they gave. This the safest, most
lucrative, most effective Cold War plan was the Marshall Plan.
Generally the Cold War lasted from 1949–1991. But it could've started earlier, "In a June 5,1947
speech to the graduating class at Harvard, Secretary of State, George C. Marshall issued a call for a
comprehensive program to rebuild Europe." (Historian, 1, 1947). Successful plans should be judged
by their effectiveness in the early years of the Cold War. To evaluate the effectiveness of the
...show
more content...
The evidence for this comes from Rep. Charles W. Vursell wrote, "...20,000,000 that you would
waste in the Marshall Plan, and spend them here at home in building the strongest air force.. in the
world." (Vursell, 1, 1947) Using this, is clear that the Marshall Plan is effective because the U.S.
would loan more money on other countries instead of using it here at home.
Some events show the Marshall Plan failing. One example is in China. As J.J. Joseph wrote, "... fact
is that the result of the Civil War in China was beyond the control of the government of the United
States
." (Joseph, 29, 1949) This shows now the Marshall Plan was not effective. But, this evidence
is not valid because the Marshall Plan was not involved and the timing was off.
Furthermore, another instance where the Marshall Plan fails was in Russia. As the History Channel
wrote, "Soviet Foreign Minister V. M. Molotov walks out of a meeting with representatives of the
British and French governments, signaling the Soviet Union's rejection of the Marshall Plan."
(History.com Staff, 1, 2016) This shows how the Marshall Plan was important in Russia for the U.S.
As a result, the Marshall Plan could not solve the problems in Russia due to them no accepting our
help. But, this evidence still does not address the issue because it was their voice to deny our help.
All the evidence provided helps show that the marshall plan is the best. If one considered the fast
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Marshall Plan Research Paper
Marshall Plan: The Marshall Plan, also known as the European Recovery Program, was a program
in which the US gave over 13 billion dollars to individual European countries to fuel the recovery of
Europe between 1948 and 191. The plan was named after George C. Marshall who first introduced
the idea in 1947. Americans perceive this as being an altruistic approach to helping the world regain
their footing after WW2, however the Soviets did not share this notion. The Soviet Union viewed
this plan as a way to infiltrate with foreign countries internal Affairs and refused to participate. They
also prevented Poland and Czechoslovakia from being included in the program even know they
needed it greatly. The undertaking of this plan contributed
...show more content...
The US became involved in the war in 1954 as the biggest allie of South Vietnam. The war was
fought in Vietnam which was an area of thick jungle and rough climate with long period of hard
rain. When communist powers took control in the north, the fight for vietnam and to end
communism in the country began. The US alone sent over 2.5 million troops to assist the South and
the american public was outraged. US involvement lasted until 1973 when Nixon withdrew our
troops and the communists took over Vietnam completely creating a socialist republic two years
later. This was important to the cold war because it was a big win for communism and a bigger blow
to the US. I chose this event because it represented a time when our country would do anything to
fight
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What Was The Marshall Plan
At the end of WWII, the victors needed to determine a way to establish a new government in
defeated Germany. All of the major European country's industries were destroyed and an aid
program was needed to re–stabilize their economies. As Germany was the sole major axis power, the
Soviets were determined not to allow major rebuilding of the country out of fear they would one day
become aggressive again.
Germany was divided into four sectors between the U.S., Britain, France and the Soviet Union
. The
U.S. plan was called the Marshall Plan and its goal was to provide massive financial aid to the war
torn European nations in order for them to become stable economies based on freedom and
democracy. The Soviets feared any such rebuilding in Germany
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Marshall Plan Containment
"The originally propagated view that the Marshall Plan was an altruistic endeavour ... has long been
dismissed." Instead, "The overwhelming body of literature looks at the Marshall Plan either from a
political and diplomatic or from an economic viewpoint." Overall, the Plan was primarily motivated
by the former, rather, than the later, albeit both were heavily intertwined. This is because
containment and a fear of Soviet expansion categorised US foreign policy for much of the postwar
period, with economic considerations being the method used, to enact this policy of containment.
The most convincing argument why the Marshall Plan was a scheme driven primarily by political,
rather than economic
...show more content...
However, it has been argued that containment should not be seen as the underlying factor behind the
Marshall Plan, due to the fact that Britain was a recipient of this aid. This is because Britain did not
fall within the sphere of communist influence, yet received the most amount of aid. For example, in
the 1945 General Election, the British Communist Party only won two out of six–hundred and fifty
seats, receiving less than one hundred thousand votes overall; thus, highlighting the lack of
communist support in postwar Britain. Furthermore, the Marshall Plan was even offered to the
Soviet Union by the American administration. Despite being an empty gesture, if there was a
genuine fear of communism and an overwhelming agenda to contain it, why would they offer aid, in
the first place, to the principal communist state? Joyce and Gabriel Kolko go further and ascertain
that the US "cynically manipulated a Russian threat in an effort to fasten economic control over the
entire world." The Kolkos argue that "Truman and his advisers deliberately exaggerated and
misrepresented external reality, provoked and invented crises, and spurned genuine Russian offers to
negotiate a détente," in order to achieve greater world hegemony. Yet, it would be inconceivable that
Britain, America's greatest ally in Western Europe, would not receive aid, especially off the back of
the harsh winter of 1946–47. This is because Britain faced an "imminent
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The Pros And Cons Of The Marshall Plan
Belligerent, aesthetic, and eloquent, Joseph Stalin would counteract Marshall Plan using Molotov
Plan, massacre millions of his own people to obtain his power, and launch Russia into an
industrialized era with purges, public executions, and ways of propaganda. Ruthless and blood full
of paranoia, Joseph Stalin would obliterate anything blocking his goals and ascendancy. Marshall
Plan initially launched on April 3rd, 1948. It was invented to aid European countries after the
calamity of War World II. In addition to aiding Europe, it also granted over five billion dollars to
European countries. In the eyes of Stalin, this act was seen as "...a ploy by Truman. It [was] nothing
like Lend–Lease– a different situation. They [didn't] want to help
...show more content...
Marshall Plan, already persuading European countries to allow United State's aid was a major threat
to Stalin's influence of Communism. Stalin needed something to distract the countries from
Marshall Plan. Molotov, Stalin's right hand man, decided to invent Molotov Plan, a replica of
Marshall Plan, but funded by the Soviet Union. "History has shown there is no invisible armies,"
Stalin said during the speech on Molotov Plan (Goodreads). Since Molotov Plan was already
supported by Romania and other Communist nations, Molotov Plan looked as if it would overthrow
Marshall Plan. Molotov Plan only caught the eye of a few countries. Marshall Plan still out shined
Molotov Plan. Due to lack of European interest, Molotov Plan failed and Marshall Plan was
launched. "The only real power comes out of a long rifle," threatened Stalin to the United States
(UCCP). Stalin's impeccable skills to invent a counteract against Marshall Plan required ingenious
leadership skills. "I don't trust anyone, not even myself," said Stalin when the USSR asked if Stalin
trusted the United States (UCCP). To this day, Russia cannot decide if Stalin was a mass murderer,
or the nation's
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Research Paper On The Marshall Plan
Marshall was a famous and powerful general in World War || he was born in December 31, 1880 and
raised in Pennsylvania. He created the Marshall Plan in April 4th 1948. The Marshall Plan was
George Marshall pointed out that economic and political chaos in those countries that could bring
about another world war. Marshall stated the new plan would be "direct not against and country or
beliefs/ religions, but against hunger, poverty, and chaos." The Marshall Plan was an American
initiative to aid Western Europe, in which the U.S. gave $13 billion in economic support to help
rebuild Western European economies after the end of World War II. George Marshall wasn't just a
idealist, but In fact George Marshall was also a bold and tough man. For example, when George
Marshall made a strong impression on Roosevelt, during a White House conference, he respectfully
but decisively disagreed with the president on a policy issue. "Those present told Marshall he'd
committed political suicide, but in fact Roosevelt decided that Marshall's honesty made him even
more valuable." Marshall wasn't just a bold and tough figure, also he was present at a lot of
important conferences with Roosevelt and later Truman. At which the Allies decided their next
military moves, and
...show more content...
For example, George Marshall created Fort Benning a military reservation and U.S. Army training
center in Georgia; the largest infantry post in the U.S. This was an important period in Marshall's
career, because he was able to play a major role in shaping the army of the future. He oversaw what
came to be known as the "Benning Revolution." When George Marshall emphasize the new mobile
warfare (conducted with tanks, airplanes, and movable weapons and covering a wide area of
ground) that modern soldiers would have to wage. Marshall taught his students not to rely on the
"school solution" or standard response to problems, but to be bold and
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Essay On The Marshall Plan
The Marshall plan was the plan named after George Marshall on June 5, 1947, to aid Western
Europe after World War II. The winter of 1946–1947 brought intense suffering to the people of
Western Europe and the only country economically healthy enough to help them was the United
States. The U.S organized a convention on July 12, 1947, to announce the plan, to which 16
countries agreed to the Marshall plan. The plan started in July 1948 and was immensely successful.
Konrad Adenauer was a Traditional Catholic man and the chancellor of post WWII Germany and
presided over the Economic and Cultural resurgence of West Germany. He also set West Germany
against the attacks from the soviet Union and communist threats. Faced with the decision to
stand
...show more content...
Some of his supporters, G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt decided to wiretap the Democratic
National Committee Headquarters at the Watergate hotel. This was illegal and also unnecessary.
During the investigation into the scandal, it became known that Nixon had taped conversations with
him and declined to release them. After being ordered to release the taped, it became known that
Nixon had told the FBI to halt an inquiry into the Watergate break–in, which made him an accessory
to the crime. On August 9, 1974, Nixon became the first president to
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What Was The Marshall Plan Essay
In 1948, the wounds from most devastating war in human history were still fresh. Whole word was
laid to waste, specially Europe. Entire cities had been reduced to rumbles. Infrastructure had been
left in shambles and economy was in complete in disarray. The Europe had been divided in eastern
and western bloc. At this time, the United States of America came up with a plan to save Europe
from total collapse. Officially, this plan was named as The European Recovery Program, although it
is popularly known as Marshall Plan in honor George C. Marshall. Officially it was stated that the
purpose of the plan is to help rebuild Europe, give humanitarian aid, reestablish economy to bring
Europe back on its own feet. Although this plan was meant to help
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Strategic air bombings of factories all around Europe had left Europe without any capabilities to
produce necessary goods. Unlike U.S. economy, the war had destroyed 70 percent of the industrial
infrastructure and collapsed European economy. In 1946, Hungary went through worst case of
hyperinflation recorded in world history. Daily inflation rate was 200%, which meant that prices
doubled every 15 hours. In fact, the economic condition was so bad that United Kingdom had to
make rationing stricter following the world war II. Wheat rationing started in 1946 and potato
rationing started in 1947, full one and two years after the war had ended respectively. If despite
winning the war, United Kingdom was suffering such problems then one can just imagine the fate of
countries like Germany which had experienced more than just the aerial bombing. This almost hell–
like atmosphere created sense of desperation among European people to seek any help they can get
to get back on their own feet.
The condition of Europe and its desperation was well known in United State of America. There were
numerous reports by United States government stating just how bad the living condition was in
Europe. The first steps towards Marshall came forward in form of the Truman Doctrine. President
Truman in a speech before joint session of Congress on March 12, 1947 announced
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