Prelim 2 Study Guide
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Cornell University *
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Dec 6, 2023
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NS 1150 Prelim 2 Study Guide
Micro 1 - Micronutrients Overview
Discuss how vitamins are different from other types of nutrients
Vitamins are essential, but not energy yielding nutrients
Classify vitamins between water-soluble and lipid soluble
Water soluble: Thiamin (B
1
), Riboflavin (B
2
), Niacin (B
3
), Pantothenic acid (B
5
), Pyridoxine (B
6
),
Biotin (B
7
), Folate (B
9
), Cobalamin (B
12
), Vitamin C
Lipid soluble: Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K
What are provitamins
Provitamins are vitamin precursors that can be converted to the active form of a vitamin within
the body
Identify strategies of reading food labels. How can you differ whether a food is enriched or
fortified?
Fortification - adding nutrients to foods that were either not present or present in small amounts
prior to processing
Enriched - adding back micronutrients to a food product, which were lost during processing
To be labeled “enriched”, must include: 4 B Vitamins (thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, and folate); Only
select foods are labeled “enriched”: rice, flour, breads, pasta, farina, cornmeal, and corn grits
Discuss how minerals are different from other types of nutrients
Minerals are inorganic atoms or molecules, other than water, that are essential for human survival.
All minerals are essential nutrients because the body cannot make them. Minerals can be neither
created nor destroyed - not degraded by cooking or digestion
What are the differences between trace minerals and major minerals
Trace minerals are needed in amounts of less than or equal to 100 mg/day. Macrominerals are
needed in amounts greater than 100 mg/day
List factors that affect vitamin and minerals bioavailability
Vitamin: substances in food, age, medication, illness, nutritional status
Minerals: interactions with other dietary components, age, medication, illness, nutritional status
Micro 2 - Micronutrients During Energy Production
Micronutrient
Thiamin
Riboflavin
Niacin
Other names
Vitamin B1
Vitamin B2
Vitamin B3
Water- or lipid-
soluble
Water-soluble
Water-soluble
Water-soluble
Function in the body
Part of the coenzyme
thiamin pyrophosphate
(TTP), used in energy
metabolism
During energy metabolism
picks up two hydrogens
from the TCA cycle and
delivers them to the ETC;
needed for the breakdown
Carries hydrogens during
metabolic reactions,
including glycolysis and the
path from the TCA cycle to
the ETC; protects against
or oxidation of fatty acids
into acetyl CoA
neurological degeneration
Associated disease
under
Beriberi (wet, with edema;
dry, with muscle wasting)
Ariboflavinosis
Pellagra
Symptoms associated
with deficiency
Heart enlargement and
failure, muscular
weakness, neurological
disturbances, anorexia,
and weight loss
Inflammation of the
membrane of the mouth,
skin, eyes, and
gastrointestinal tract
Characterized by
symptoms of diarrhea,
dermatitis, dementia, and
eventually death (the 4 Ds)
Toxicity
None reported
None reported
Nicotinic flush; occurs
when taken in doses in 3 to
4 times higher than RDA,
dilates capillaries and
causes a tingling sensation
that can be painful,
increases plasma glucose
and damages the liver
RDA
Women: 1.1 mg/day
Men: 1.2 mg/day
Women: 1.1 mg/day
Men: 1.3 mg/day
Women: 14 mg/day
Men: 16 mg/day
Micro 3 - Bone Health
Identify the main roles, deficiency symptoms, and sources of Vitamin D
Vitamin D maintains mineral homeostasis (balance/equilibrium). Vitamin D can be produced in the
skin, through sunlight exposure, or obtained from the diet, by ingesting vitamin D-rich products or
supplements. Vitamin D deficiency: rickets - inadequate bone mineralization (early life-young
children), softened and deformed bones; osteomalacia - inadequate bone mineralization (later
years- adults), softening of the bones; osteoporosis - demineralization of previously healthy bone,
results in weak, brittle, porous bone
Explain how the body regulates calcium homeostasis
When the body experiences low blood calcium levels, the parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH), PTH stimulates the conversion of 25(OH)D
3
to 1,25(OH)
2
D
3
(active form).
Calcitriol then increases dietary calcium absorption, decreases calcium excretion (kidneys), and
increases calcium release from bones
Identify the main roles, deficiency symptoms, and food sources of calcium
Calcium is used in forming and keeping strong bones/teeth, cell signaling, muscle contraction,
blood clot formation, and blood pressure regulation. Sources of calcium include plant- and animal-
derived foods, dairy products (high bioavailability), and leafy green vegetables. Osteoporosis can
be a product of calcium deficiency
Describe factors that contribute to the development of osteoporosis and strategies to prevent it
Factors that contribute to the development of osteoporosis are early menopause (before age 45) -
low estrogen, eating disorders, family history of osteoporosis, early malnutrition, Vitamin D
deficiency.
Identify the main roles, deficiency symptoms, and sources of Vitamin K
The main functions of Vitamin K is that it plays a role in blood clotting and bone mineralization
(needed for synthesizing bone protein osteocalcin). Sources of Vitamin K include dark leafy
greens.
The main symptom of vitamin K deficiency is bleeding (hemorrhage)
—into the skin
(causing bruises), from the nose, from a wound, in the stomach, or in the intestine. Sometimes
bleeding in the stomach causes vomiting with blood. Blood may be seen in the urine or stool, or
stools may be tarry black.
Micronutrient
Vitamin D
Vitamin K
Calcium
Other names
Ergocalciferol (D2)
Cholecalciferol (D3)
Quinone family of
compounds
K1: phylloquinone
K2: menaquinone
K3: menadione
N/A
Water- or lipid-
soluble
lipid-soluble
lipid-soluble
N/A
Function in the body
Helps form and keep
strong bones and teeth,
helps in muscle
contraction, helps nerves
carry messages between
the brain and body, helps
support immune system
Needed for synthesizing
blood protein osteocalcin
Bone formation, muscle
contraction, cell signaling,
blood clot formation, blood
pressure regulation
Associated disease
under
Rickets, Osteomalacia,
Osteoporosis
Vitamin K deficiency
bleeding
Osteoporosis
Symptoms associated
with deficiency
Soft and weak bones,
porous and brittle bones
Hemorrhaging
Hypocalcemia, muscle
pain, muscle spasm, and
tingling sensations.
Stunted growth in children,
bone loss in adults,
osteoporosis
Toxicity
Excess Vitamin D results in
high blood calcium
concentrations; calcium
desposition in soft tissues
forming stones (kidney
stones, harden blood
vessels
N/A
Excess calcium results in
constipation, increased risk
of urinary stones and
kidney dysfunction,
interference with the
absorption of other
minerals (e.g. Fe, Zn)
RDA
15 ug/day or 600 IU/day
Men: 120 ug/day
Women: 90 ug/day
RDA: 1,000 mg
UL: 2,500 mg
Micro 4 - Blood Health
What is the role of vitamin K in coagulation?
Vitamin K takes inactive forms of clotting factors to active, causes clots
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How does warfarin disrupt the coagulation cascade?
Warfarin disrupts the coagulation cascade by acting as an anticoagulant, blocking VItamin K,
which blocks coagulation
Which vitamins are involved in 1 carbon metabolism?
Vitamin B9 and Vitamin
B12
What is methylation? Why is it important?
Methylation is the process of adding or removing -CH3. It is important for transcription factor
accessibility to genes
Explain how homocysteine levels are maintained. What are potential consequences of high
homocysteine levels in blood?
Homocysteine is an amino acid product created from the folate cycle but is balanced at levels to be
converted into cysteine or methionine; Homocysteine is a biomarker for normal 1C metabolism. If
levels of homocysteine are high in blood it is indicative of a B (B9/B12) vitamin deficiency
What is the difference between folate and folic acid?
Folate is a natural form of Vitamin B9 in food, while folic acid is a synthetic form
Micro 5 - Water and Electrolytes
What are the differences between intracellular and extracellular fluid?
Intracellular fluid: 28 L; found within cells
Extracellular fluid: 14 L → interstitial fluid: 3 L, plasma (intravascular
fluid): 11 L; include intravascular (extracellular fluid in blood and
lymph)
and interstitial fluid (extracellular fluid found between cells)
Name the different types of extracellular fluid (#2). What is the difference between them?
Interstitial fluid and intravascular fluid. Interstitial fluid is extracellular fluid found between cells.
Intravascular fluid is extracellular fluid
in blood and lymph
Identify the hormones (#3) that play an important role in fluid and electrolyte regulation. How do
they regulate fluid and electrolyte balance?
The hormones that play a role in fluid and electrolyte regulation are antidiuretic hormone (ADH),
aldosterone, and natriuretic peptides. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is secreted by the pituitary and
promotes water retention by the kidneys (reduces urinary losses). Aldosterone is secreted by the
adrenal glands and stimulates sodium absorption by the kidneys and thus, regulates water and
sodium balance (“water follows salt”). Natriuretic peptides are released by cardiac muscles and
block the release of ADH and aldosterone, reduces thirst, and stimulates fluid loss by the kidneys
Jane drank a half gallon of water without minerals, what effect might this have on her ADH levels?
If Jane drank a half gallon of water without minerals, this would likely decrease ADH (Antidiuretic
Hormone) levels. When the body takes in a large amount of water without a corresponding
increase in solute concentration, it can lead to lower blood osmolarity. In response, the body
reduces ADH secretion, allowing excess water to be excreted through urine, thereby maintaining
proper water balance. This decrease in ADH levels helps to prevent dilutional hyponatremia (low
blood sodium levels).
Hormone
Secreted by _______, in
response to _______
Major effects
Net effect with
respect to
extracellular fluid
Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH)
pituitary, changes in
blood osmolarity
Promotes water
retention by the kidneys
(prevents urinary losses)
Increase its volume
Aldosterone
adrenal glands, changes
in blood volume and
pressure
Stimulates sodium
absorption by the
kidneys and thus,
regulates water and
sodium balance (“water
follows salt”)
Increase its volume
Natriuretic peptides
cardiac muscle cells,
increased blood volume
and high blood pressure
Block the release of
ADH and aldosterone,
reduce thirst, stimulate
fluid loss by the kidneys
Reduce its volume
Micro 6 - Eye Health and Antioxidants
Identify the main roles, deficiency symptoms, and food sources of Vitamins A, E, and C
Vitamin A: Plays a role in vision, growth, reproduction, and immunity; In
the eye Vitamin A helps maintain the cornea, participates in the conversion
of light energy into nerve impulses at the retina; Deficiency in Vitamin A
could result in loss of night vision, severe deficiency can lead to
blindness (Xerophthalmia → damage to the cornea, can lead to permanent
blindness); Deficiency can also lead to impaired wound healing, impaired
immunity, and dry mucous membranes; Food sources include animal sources
(preformed vitamin A): organ meats, fatty fish, and dairy products, and
plant sources (carotenoids): yellowish-red color plants, cantaloupe,
carrots, and peppers
Vitamin E: The main function of Vitamin E in the body is to act as an antioxidant, protecting cells
and tissues from oxidative damage; Deficiency in Vitamin E could result in hemolysis of red blood
cells, which results in hemolytic anemia; Food sources include: plant and animal foods, but is
especially abundant in vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, and some dark vegetables
Vitamin C: The main functions of Vitamin C are playing a role in the
synthesis of collagen, acting as an antioxidant, regenerating Vitamin E
from its oxidized form, synthesis of carnitine (transports fatty acids into
the mitochondria, and the absorption of nonheme iron; Deficiency in Vitamin
C could result in scurvy → bleeding gums, skin irritations, bruising, and
poor wound healing (related to collagen); Food sources of Vitamin C include
many fruits and vegetables, including citrus fruits, peppers, papaya,
broccoli, and strawberries
What is an antioxidant? Which vitamins have antioxidant properties?
An antioxidant is a compound that readily gives up electrons to other substances. Vitamins E and C
have antioxidant properties
Describe the role of Vitamin A in the visual cycle
Vitamin A plays a crucial role in the visual cycle by being a component of the pigment rhodopsin in
the rod cells of the retina. Rhodopsin helps in low-light vision by absorbing light and initiating a
signal to the brain.
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