Disease and Nutritional Genomics Summary
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Disease and Nutritional Genomics Summary
Disease and Nutritional Genomics Summary
Grand Canyon University
Applied Anatomy and Physiology I
Brett Thomas
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Disease and Nutritional Genomics Summary
Causes and pre-disposing factors
Type 2 diabetes is primarily caused by a combination of genetic and lifestyle factors. The
condition develops when the body becomes resistant to insulin or when the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin to regulate blood sugar levels effectively. Insulin is a hormone that facilitates the entry of glucose into cells for energy production. Insulin resistance leads to higher blood glucose levels, triggering the onset of type 2 diabetes (2024). Genetic predisposition plays a significant role, as individuals with a family history of diabetes are at a higher risk. A genetic factor also contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes in African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, and Asians.
Lifestyle factors significantly contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes. Obesity, particularly abdominal obesity, is a major risk factor due to its association with insulin resistance. A sedentary lifestyle, characterized by physical inactivity, exacerbates this risk by contributing to weight gain and poor metabolic health. Poor dietary habits, including high consumption of processed foods, sugary beverages, and high-fat diets, further increase the likelihood of developing diabetes (2024). Other predisposing factors include age, as the risk increases with age, and conditions such as hypertension and dyslipidemia. Gestational diabetes during pregnancy also raises the future risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Chronic stress and lack of sleep can also impair insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism, contributing to the disease.
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Disease and Nutritional Genomics Summary
How type 2 is diagnosed
Type 2 diabetes is diagnosed through a combination of clinical evaluation and laboratory tests. Initially, healthcare providers consider a patient's medical history, symptoms, and risk factors such as age, weight, family history, and lifestyle. Common symptoms prompting further investigation include increased thirst, frequent urination, unexplained weight loss, fatigue, and blurred vision. Physicians typically request one or more of the following laboratory tests to verify the diagnosis: fasting plasma glucose (FPG), oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), glycated hemoglobin (A1C), or random plasma glucose. The FPG test measures blood glucose levels after
an overnight fast, with levels of 126 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L) or higher indicating diabetes
(
Balogh, E. P., December). The OGTT assesses blood glucose before and two hours after consuming a sugary drink, with levels of 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) or higher indicating diabetes.
HbA1c tests, also known as A1C tests, measure your average blood glucose levels over the past two to three months. A result of 6.5% or higher indicates diabetes. This test is advantageous because it does not require fasting and provides a long-term overview of blood sugar levels. A random plasma glucose test can also be used, particularly when symptoms are present, and a result of 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) or higher suggests diabetes. Often, a diagnosis is confirmed by repeating these tests on another day to rule out any anomalies. Together, these diagnostic tools enable healthcare providers to accurately identify type 2 diabetes and initiate appropriate treatment and management strategies.
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Disease and Nutritional Genomics Summary
Common signs and symptoms Type 2 diabetes often develops gradually, making it challenging to detect in its early stages. Common signs and symptoms include increased thirst and frequent urination, as excess glucose in the bloodstream causes the kidneys to work harder to filter and absorb the sugar. This can also lead to dehydration and a constant feeling of thirst
(
Fonseca, V. A., 2009, November). Additionally, individuals may experience increased hunger, as the body's cells become resistant to insulin, preventing glucose from entering the cells and providing energy. This lack of cellular glucose can leave people feeling tired and fatigued.
Other symptoms of type 2 diabetes can include blurred vision, as high blood sugar levels can affect the lenses of the eyes, causing swelling and changes in vision. Slow-healing sores or frequent infections are also common, as elevated glucose levels can impair the body's natural healing process and immune function. Some people may notice areas of darkened skin, particularly in the armpits and neck, known as acanthosis nigricans, which can be a sign of insulin resistance. Prolonged elevated blood sugar levels can lead to nerve damage, resulting in tingling or numbness in the hands or feet, known as neuropathy. Recognizing these symptoms early and seeking medical advice is crucial in managing type 2 diabetes effectively.
Current Treatments
Current treatments for type 2 diabetes focus on managing blood sugar levels and addressing lifestyle factors. Initial treatments often involve lifestyle modifications, such as diet changes and increased physical activity, aimed at improving insulin sensitivity and reducing 4
Disease and Nutritional Genomics Summary
blood glucose levels (Fonseca, V. A., 2009, November). Medications are also a mainstay of treatment, with metformin being the first-line pharmacologic therapy due to its efficacy and safety profile. Other medications, including sulfonylureas, DPP-4 inhibitors, SGLT2 inhibitors, and GLP-1 receptor agonists, can be added depending on individual patient needs and response to treatment. For patients with more advanced diseases or those who cannot achieve glycemic control with oral medications, insulin therapy may be necessary. Regular monitoring of blood sugar levels, as well as routine check-ups to monitor for complications such as cardiovascular disease, neuropathy, and retinopathy, are critical components of the management plan.
Type 2 diabetes progresses through several stages, starting with insulin resistance, where the body's cells become less responsive to insulin, leading to higher blood sugar levels. Initially, the pancreas compensates by producing more insulin, but over time, this compensation fails as beta-cell function deteriorates (Fonseca, V. A., 2009, November). This results in the onset of hyperglycemia and the clinical diagnosis of diabetes. As the disease progresses, beta-cell function continues to decline, and patients may require more intensive treatment regimens to maintain glycemic control. Complications can develop if blood sugar levels remain uncontrolled,
including cardiovascular disease, kidney damage (nephropathy), nerve damage (neuropathy), and
eye damage (retinopathy). Effective management aims to slow disease progression and prevent or mitigate these complications through a combination of lifestyle interventions, medication, and regular monitoring.
Concept and the Impact
An individual's health is impacted by the interaction between genetics and diet, which is called nutritional genomics. This interdisciplinary field combines principles from genetics, 5
Disease and Nutritional Genomics Summary
molecular biology, and nutrition to understand how different foods affect gene expression and how genetic variations affect the nutritional environment of the body. By analyzing the genetic profiles of individuals, scientists can determine how specific nutrients impact various biological processes and how diet can be optimized to improve health and prevent disease (2023, March). Nutritional genomics aims to develop personalized dietary recommendations that consider an individual's unique genetic makeup, promoting a more tailored approach to nutrition and health management.
The relationship between diet and type 2 diabetes is a critical area of study within nutritional genomics. Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and high blood sugar levels, which can lead to severe complications if not managed properly. Research has shown that diet plays a significant role in the development and management of type
2 diabetes (2023, March). Certain dietary patterns, such as those high in refined sugars and saturated fats, can exacerbate insulin resistance and increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Conversely, diets rich in whole grains, fiber, healthy fats, and lean proteins can help manage blood sugar levels and improve insulin sensitivity. Nutrigenomics helps identify how individual genetic variations can affect responses to different dietary components, enabling more
precise dietary interventions to prevent or manage type 2 diabetes based on one's genetic predisposition. This personalized approach can enhance the effectiveness of dietary strategies in reducing the risk and impact of type 2 diabetes.
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Disease and Nutritional Genomics Summary
References
Balogh, E. P. (2015, December 29). The diagnostic process. Improving Diagnosis in Health Care.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK338593/
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Diabetes risk factors. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/risk-factors/index.html
Fonseca, V. A. (2009a, November). Defining and characterizing the progression of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes care. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2811457/
Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2023, March 14). Type 2 diabetes. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-2-diabetes/symptoms-
causes/syc-20351193
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