GEOL-1401+Lab+Manual+SP2023

GEOL-1401 Lab Manual SPRING 2023

1 TABLE OF CONTENTS UNIT 1: ASTRONOMY Lab 1: Patterns in the Solar System …………………………………… . 2 Lab 2: Earth- Moon- Sun Systems …………………………………… .. … 7 UNIT 2: GEOLOGY Lab 3: Plate Tectonics Jigsaw ……………………………………………… . 15 Lab 4: Minerals ………………………………………………………………… 17 Lab 5: Igneous Rocks ………………………………………………………… . 24 Lab 6: Sedimentary Rocks ……………………………………………… .... 31 Lab 7: Metamorphic Rocks ………………………………………… .. …… 37 Lab 8: Topographic Maps …………………………………………… . ….. 4 2 Lab 9: Earthquake Intensity Map ………………………………… . ….. 55 Lab 10: Locating the Epicenter ……………………………………… . … 59 Lab 11: Structural Geology ………………………………………… . …… 64 Lab 12: Geologic Time ……………………………………………… . ……… 72 UNIT 3: METEOROLOGY & OCEANOGRAPHY Lab 13: Characteristics of Ocean Water Part 1 ………………… .. 81 Lab 14: Characteristics of Ocean Water Part 1 ………………… .. 86 Lab 15: Relative Humidity & Dew Point …………………………… .. 89

3 Planetary Data Chart Planet Mean Distance from Sun Period of Rotation (Earth Days) Period of Revolution (in Earth Days) Diameter (km) Relative Mass (Earth=1) Average Density (g/cm 3 ) Inclination of Orbit (◦) # Known Satellites AU Million km Mercury 0.39 58 59 d 88 d 4,854 0.056 5.4 7 ◦ 0 Venus 0.72 108 -243 d 224 d 12,112 0.82 5.2 3 ◦ 24’ 0 Earth 1.00 150 23 h 56 m 04 s 365.25 d 12,751 1.00 5.5 0 ◦ 00 1 Mars 1.52 228 24 h 37 m 23 s 687 d 6,788 0.108 3.9 1 ◦ 51’ 2 Jupiter 5.20 778 9 h 50 m 11.86 y 143,000 317.87 1.3 1 ◦ 18’ 63 Saturn 9.54 1,427 10 h 25 m 29.46 y 121,000 95.14 0.7 2 ◦ 29’ 61 Uranus 19.18 2,870 17 h 14 m 84 y 47,000 14.56 1.2 0 ◦ 46’ 27 Neptune 30.06 4,497 16 h 165 y 46,529 17.21 1.7 1 ◦ 46’ 13 Background: The order that exists within the Solar System is directly related to the laws of physics that governed its formation (refer to lecture on the creation of the Solar System). The inner planets share the same physical characteristics, such as rocky bodies with solid surfaces and large cores are known as the terrestrial (Earth-like) planets. The outer planets formed under different conditions than the terrestrial planets. They are gaseous planets with cores of ices and rocks, referred to as Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets (Figure 1). When the Solar System is viewed from the side, the orbits of the planets all lay in nearly the same plane, called the Plane of the Ecliptic (Figure 2). All planets orbit the Sun in a counterclockwise direction (known as revolution ). As well, a ll planets rotate on their axes counterclockwise unless they have a negative value for the “Period of Rotation” in the “Planetary Data Chart.” You can also see this by looking at the arrows for each planet in Figure 3. Obliquity is the an gle of a planet’s axis relative to its orbital inclination (Figure 3). For example, refer to Figure 4 and you can see the Earth ’s axis is the imaginary line that passes through both the North and South Poles. This imaginary line is perpendicular to the imaginary plane through which the Earth orbits the Sun. Thus, the Earth's obliquity of 23.5˚ is the angle between these two lines. Simply put, obliquity is the axial tilt of a planet. Refer to the following mathematical equations when answering the lab questions. 𝐀?????? = ??? ?? ??????? # ?? ??????? ?????? = 𝐌??? × 𝐆?????𝐲 The gravitational attraction of a planet is directly related to its mass. 𝐃?????𝐲 = 𝐌??? ?????? As a reference, the density of water is 1 g/cm 3 . ???????𝐲 = 𝐃??????? ????

4 Part 1. Rotation and Revolution of the Planets 1. Which planet has the greatest inclination to the plane of the ecliptic (inclination of orbit)? 2. With exception of the planet listed in the above question, the orbits of all the planets lie within approximately ____ degrees of the plane. a. 2 b. 4 c. 6 d. 10 3. Why do you think the planets are nearly all in the same plane? (Think about the origins of the Solar System) 4. ( Rotation / Revolution ) is the movement of the planet in an orbit around the Sun and ( Rotation / Revolution ) is the spinning of a planet around its axis. 5. Why do most planets and other objects in the Solar System move in a counterclockwise direction? (Think about the origins of the Solar System) 6. Identify the only planet that does not rotate in a counterclockwise direction. 7. On Earth, the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. What does this mean for the planet in the previous question? 8. Due to its obliquity, which planet essentially spins on its side? 9. Write a brief statement comparing the rotational periods of the terrestrial planets to those of the Jovian planets. 10. The gas giant Jupiter rotates on its axis approximately every ________ hours. The equatorial circumference of Jupiter is about 280,000 miles. Thus, if an object were on the equator of Jupiter and rotating with it, it would travel about 280,000 miles in about 10 hours. Complete the calculation to determine the equatorial rotational velocity of Jupiter below in mph. (Hint: refer to the math equations in the “Background” section of the lab) 11. The equatorial circumference of the Earth is about 24,000 miles. The Earth rotates once on its axis every ________hours. Calculate the equatorial rotational velocity of the Earth below. 12. Based on your previous answers, how many times faster does Jupiter spin on its axis compared to the Earth? 13. For all the planets, compare the period of rotation to the period of revolution and then complete the following statement by circling the best responses: The terrestrial planets all have ( long / short ) days and ( long / short ) years, while the Jovian planets all have ( long / short ) days and ( long / short ) years.

6 25. Which of the two groups of planets would have the greatest ability to hold large quantities of gas (i.e., H and He) as part of their compositions? Why? 26. What is average density of the two groups of planets? Terrestrial planets ___________ g/cm 3 Jovian planets ___________ g/cm 3 27. Compare the size and density of the two groups of planets and then complete the following statement by circling the best responses: The terrestrial planets are ( smaller / larger ) and (less dense / denser ) compared to the Jovian planets which are ( smaller / larger ) and (less dense / denser ). 28. The average density of Earth is about 5.5 g/cm 3 . Considering the density of the surface rocks is less than 5.5 g/cm 3 , what does this suggest about the Earth’s interior? 29. Which planet has a density less than water and would theoretically “float”? 30. Why can Jupiter be such a massive planet and yet have a low density? 31. Why are the densities of terrestrial and Jovian planets so different? (Think about the origins of the Solar System) Part 6: Number of Moons and the Planets 32. Compare the number of known moons of the terrestrial planets to those of the Jovian planets. Is there a pattern? Explain. 33. What is the general relationship between the number of moons and the planet’s mass? Modified from: Tarbuck, E. J., Lutgens, F. K., & Pinzke, K. G. (2012). Patterns in the solar system. In Applications and Investigations in Earth Science (7th ed., pp. 249-255). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

7 Lab 2: The Earth- Moon- Sun Systems THE EARTH – SUN SYSTEM Objective: In this part of the lab, you will understand how solar radiation changes from place to place on Earth depending on your location. You will also learn why the Earth experiences different seasons throughout the year and understand the significance of important parallels (lines) of latitude. Latitude and longitude will be discussed in more detail in Lab 8. Directions: Use the diagrams and background information to answer the following questions. Background: Solar Radiation The amount of solar radiation varies on Earth for several reasons. First, it depends on the angle of incoming insolation ( the amount of solar radiation reaching a given area ) which changes throughout the day to throughout the year. The Earth rotates on its axis creating day and night every 24 hours and revolves around the Sun with one revolution equal to one year. Another important factor is that the Earth is tilted on its axis at 23.5 ◦ . As the Earth revolves around the Sun, its axis never changes direction. Because of this, the angle of insolation changes throughout the year resulting in seasons. The intensity of the sunlight is determined by the angle of insolation, with 90˚ being the greatest. Areas on Earth where the intens ity of the sunlight is greatest will be the warmest. At lower angles of insolation, the sunlight spreads over a larger surface area reducing the intensity. Latitude Latitudes are imaginary lines on the Earth known as parallels because they are always parallel to each other and never meet. Parallels run in an east – west direction and measure the distance north or south of the Equator (0˚). For example, the Tropic of Cancer is a parallel that is located 23.5 ◦ north of the Equator. The North and South Poles are 90˚ north and south of the Equator, respectively. (Figure 1) Figure 1. Lines of Latitude

9 Diagram 2. Important Parallels of Latitude during the Winter Solstice and Summer Solstice 6. Diagram 2 shows the Circle of Illumination , also known as the day-night line. Label this line on the diagram. 7. Compare the Winter and Summer Solstices by completing the following chart based on Diagram 2. Questions Winter Solstice Summer Solstice Which pole is receiving 24 hours of sunlight? Which pole is receiving 24 hours of darkness? If you lived at the equator, would you look North or South to see the Sun at Noon? At which latitude are the Sun’s rays directly overhead ? Which hemisphere is receiving the most direct insolation? Which hemisphere is receiving the least direct insolation? What season is the Northern Hemisphere experiencing? What season is the Southern Hemisphere experiencing?

10 Diagram 3. Path of the Earth as it Revolves Around the Sun 8. Label the seasons in Diagram 3 for each position of the Earth. 9. During the Spring and Fall equinoxes, what latitude are the Sun’s rays directly overhead, and therefore receives the most intense insolation? ______________________ 10. During the equinoxes, what is the relationship between the North and South Poles and the Circle of Illumination? 11. Based on your previous answer, describe the length on daylight everywhere on Earth during both equinoxes. THE EARTH-MOON SYSTEM Objective: By the end of this lab, you will be able to define the major landforms on the Moon’s surface and determine their relative ages. You will also be able to characterize the phases of the Moon and distinguish the difference between solar and lunar eclipses. Directions: Answer the questions below. Part 1: The Lunar Surface Background: With such a little atmosphere, the Moon was once bombarded by asteroids and meteoroids leaving numerous craters behind. The Tycho Crater is more than 52 miles (85 kilometers) wide! “Over billions of years, these impacts have ground up the surface of the Moon into fragments ranging from huge boulders to powder. Nearly the entire moon is covered by a rubble pile of charcoal-gray, powdery dust and rocky debris called the lunar regolith .” (NASA) The bright areas of the Moon are known as the lunar highlands . The dark features, called maria (Latin for “seas”), are impact basins (craters) that were filled with fluid, basaltic lava between 4.2 and 1.2 billion years ago. Rayed craters are large craters with bright ejecta that extend far beyond the rims of the crater.

12 Part 2: Phases of the Moon Background: The lunar phases re sult from the motion of the Moon and the sunlight that is reflected from the Moon’s surface. Half of the Moon is always illuminated by the Sun ; however, the portion that is visible to an Earth-bound observer changes daily. When the Moon is located between the Sun and the Earth, the bright side is blocked from the Earth and this lunar phase is called New Moon (“no - moon”). When the Moon is positioned on the side of the Earth opposite to the Sun, all the bright side is visible from the Earth and this phase is called Full Moon . During the lunar cycle, between these two phases, only a fraction of the Moon’s illuminated half is visible. As the Moon moves from New Moon to Full Moon, the phases in between are said to be waxing because the illuminated portion of the Moon is getting larger. As the Moon travels from the Full Moon phase back to New Moon, the phases in between are said to be waning because the illuminated portion of the Moon we observe is shrinking. Below is a diagram illustrating the eight phases of the Moon as it orbits the Earth during the month from the perspective of the Northern Hemisphere. Use this diagram to answer the following questions. The arrows on the left represent light from the Sun. The diagram is not to scale. Diagram modified from https://www.physics.utoronto.ca/~jharlow/teaching/moonphase.html

13 4. Recall, the side of the Moon facing the Sun will always be illuminated no matter where you are located on Earth. This is represented by the smaller moons on the diagram, labeled 1 – 8. However, from our perspective on Earth, we do not always see the complete half of the Moon that is illuminated. a. For each of the smaller moons, shade the area of the illuminated side that will be hidden from our view on Earth. The Moon at Location 3 has been done as an example. b. Why do you think the Moon at Location 3 known as the First Quarter phase? c. Compare the small, shaded moons at Locations 2, 3, and 4. The bright visible part of the Moon is (increasing / decreasing) from Location 2 to Location 4 and can be described as ( waxing / waning). d. Use arrows and label the waxing and waning directions on the diagram. Remember, waxing is when the Moon is becoming more visible to Earth viewers and waning is when it becomes less visible. 5. Draw the correct lunar phases onto the larger blank circles in their correct positions. Also, label each phase on the diagram. 6. In the Northern Hemisphere, the part of the waxing Moon that is in shadow is on the ( left / right) and when the Moon is waning, the shadow part is on the ( left / right). 7. Observe the four people (A, B, C, and D) at different positions on the Earth in the diagram. Remember, the Earth rotates on its axis counterclockwise once per day. a. What direction does an observer have to look to see the Full Moon setting? (Hint: think about the direction of Earth’s rotation) b. Which person observes the Full Moon at its highest point at midnight? _______________ c. Which person observes the Full Moon set at sunrise? _______________ d. Which person observes the Full Moon rise at sunset? _______________ e. Which person does not observe the Full Moon at all? _____________ Why?

15 Lab 3: Plate Tectonics Jigsaw Overview: For this lab, your instructor will organize the class into 4 groups. Each group will spend 10-15 minutes studying their assigned geologic data set map and summarizing the trends of the data. Once your instructor is satisfied that all groups have observed what they need to on their respective map, your group will split in half. One half will stay with your map while the other half visits the other 3 data maps and has the data explained to them by the group that studied that map. Once the second half of the group has visited all three of the other maps, they will switch with the half that stayed behind to explain the data to other groups. Once you have all had a chance to visit all the map stations, answer the assessment questions below. Your goal is to observe, analyze and describe the data presented on your map, not to explain or interpret. Look for patterns, trends and features. The idea here is to approach the data as if you were a scientist in the 1950’s, before the cohesive theory of plate tectonics was widely accepted. Even if you understand the implications of your data, pretend you don’t! This may be difficult but try. Do not use the terms “plates” “boundaries” “ring of fire” “subduction” “mid ocean ridge” or any other plate tectonic rela ted term. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. Volcanoes Map: Summarize the general trends of the map. Where are volcanoes present? Where don’t you see them? When they are present, do you see them in clusters? Linear belts? Isolated features? Where do you see these different patterns? Any other observations? ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Topography Map: Look at the map legend to make sure you understand the map. Summarize the general trends of the map. Where are the highest places on earth? What are the general trends of mountain ranges in different locations? Where are the lowest elevation areas? What do you see in the middle of some oceans with respect to topography? Any other observations? ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Seismology (Earthquakes) Map : Make sure you read the map key. Summarize the general trends of the map. Where are there earthquakes? Where are there no significant earthquakes? What are the patterns where you do find them? What do the different colors mean? What do you notice about the pattern when there are different color data points in an area? ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________

16 4 . Seafloor age Map: Make sure you understand the map legend. Summarize the general trends of the map. What do you notice about the change in age of sea floor? How would you describe the pattern of age changes? What do you notice about the bands themselves? This is a key data set so make sure you spend some time really looking at this map. ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ Now, go back and examine the volcano and earthquake maps more closely. 7. In general, do you see earthquake activity everywhere there are active volcanoes? ____________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Do you see volcanic activity everywhere there is earthquake activity? ____________________________________________________________________________________ 9. Name one location where you can see earthquake activity but no volcanic activity. ____________________________________________________________________________________ 10. Provide a hypothesis for the relationship between volcanoes and earthquakes. Why are there some locations where they both occur and others where you only really have earthquakes and not volcanic activity? ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ 11. Looking more closely at the Topographic map, find the areas with the lowest elevations (dark magenta on the map). Describe how these areas correlate with earthquake and volcanic activity. ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________

18 ⮚ HARDNESS - The Mohs hardness scale (below) gives a relative hardness scale for some common minerals and objects. The scale runs from 1 – 10 with 1 being the softest minerals and 10 being the hardest. Any mineral or object with a higher value can scratch a mineral or item with a lower value . For example, your fingernail (H = 2.5) can scratch the minerals talc (H = 1) and gypsum (H = 2) and any other mineral with a hardness < 2.5. For most of our samples, it will only be necessary to know if the mineral is harder or softer than your fingernail and glass. Steps: Can you scratch the sample with your fingernail? Yes. Use the range <2.5 No. Does the sample scratch glass? b. Yes. Use the range >5.5 c. No. Use the range 2.5 – 5.5 (it is harder than your fingernail, but softer than glass) 1 Talc 2 Gypsum 3 Calcite 4 Fluorite 5 Apatite 6 Orthoclase (feldspar) 7 Quartz 8 Topaz 9 Corundum 10 Diamond ⮚ CRYSTAL FORM – This refers to the arrangement of faces that make up the exterior surface of a crystal. The crystal faces represent the ordered atomic structure of the mineral. The same mineral will always have the same crystal form, however, we must remember that the characteristic form of a mineral will only develop if the crystal is allowed to grow unimpeded. This is rare in nature . Only a few of our samples will exhibit this property. Some of the common forms are cubic, hexagonal and rectangular. This property can easily be c onfused with a mineral’s cleavage, described below. For our labs, you will need to learn which samples typically exhibit crystal form rather than cleavage. Pyrite crystal showing perfect cubic crystal form. "Nature Perfect" by cobalt123 is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 Quartz crystal with hexagonal (six-sided prism) crystal form "Quartz Crystal" by WILLPOWER STUDIOS is licensed under CC BY 2.0 2.5 Fingernail 3.5 Copper 5.5 Glass Plate 7.5 Streak Plate

19 ⮚ CLEAVAGE – This refers to a mineral’s tendency to break along planes of weakness (cleavage planes). Which planes a mineral will break along is determined by the internal, atomic structure of the mineral. Some minerals have many cleavage planes and some have none (= fracture). When describing cleavage, you must note how many planes are present (usually 0 – 4, but there are a few minerals that have more) and at what angles they intersect each other (60 ° , 90 ° , 120 ° ). The following diagram illustrates the most common cleavage directions. Types of cleavage with mineral examples. Cleavage differs by the number and angle between cleavage planes. Image credit: cleavage models adapted from M.C. Rygel; muscovite from Daniel Hauptvogel, all other minerals from James St. John, CC BY-SA ⮚ COLOR – Although color is the first property we notice in a mineral, it is the least diagnostic . A few minerals have diagnostic colors, but most have a variety of colors that result from impurities or inclusions. Quartz in six color varieties. Color may not be a diagnostic property for mineral identification. Other quartz colors include green, red, orange, and brown. Image credit: Karla Panchuck, CC BY-NC-SA. ⮚ OTHER PROPERTIES – Other minerals might have diagnostic tests such as taste (halite), reaction with dilute HCl acid (calcite), odor, or magnetism. We will discuss these in the lab and you will make note of the presence of any of these in your worksheet. (Please don’t lick any of your samples!)