PHY 2-2 Milestone 1 Geological Analysis
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Southern New Hampshire University *
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Subject
Geology
Date
Dec 6, 2023
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Uploaded by EarlNightingale3188
When looking at the various rock types using the module resources starting from the
surface is limestone, sandstone, limestone, coal, siltstone, coal, sandstone, schist, and granite.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock made mostly of the calcium-containing carbonate minerals
calcite and dolomite. (
Limestone - PUB2902 | Missouri Department of Natural Resources
,
2020). Sandstone is a sedimentary rock that is largely made of quartz sand, but it may also
contain substantial quantities of feldspar, silt, and clay. (
Sandstone - Minerals Education
Coalition
, 2017). Coal is a sedimentary rock, and bituminous coal typically has "bands," or strips
of varying uniformity, that identify the crushed layers of plant material. There are three forms of
bituminous coal: smithing coal, cannel coal, and coking coal. (
Coal
, n.d.). Siltstone is a classic
sedimentary rock. Schist (SHIST) is a metamorphic rock composed of basalt (igneous rock),
shale (sedimentary rock), and slate (metamorphic rock). Schist contains wavy mineral layers and
is readily broken. (
Schist Page
, n.d.). Granite is the most common igneous rock, forming the
foundation of much of the continental crust.
When the overlaying rocks are removed, the
intrusive igneous rock granite is exposed. (
Granite - Minerals Education Coalition
, 2018).
The volcanic vent and the granite are the youngest because granite signifies a magma
chamber which intrudes itself into the surrounding layers and the volcanic vent cuts through the
fault. The next youngest would-be fault since it cuts through all other layers. Followed by
limestone, sandstone, limestone, coal, siltstone, coal, sandstone, and ending with the oldest being
the schist.
Several geologic features are a fault, magma chambers, volcano and volcanic vent. The
figure shown in the image shown in the module resources shows a fault, a fracture in rock along
which displacement occurs, offsets a mass of rock. The rocks are clearly older than the fault that
shattered them. According to the concept of cross-cutting relationships, geologic structures that
cut across rocks must develop after the strata that they cut through. A fault is a zone of fractures
or a fracture between two pieces of rock. Faults enable the blocks to move in relation to one
another. This movement can occur quickly in the case of an earthquake, or slowly in the form of
creep. Faults can be as short as a few millimeters or as long as hundreds of kilometers. Most
faults cause recurring displacements over geologic time. The rock on one side of the fault
abruptly slides to the other during an earthquake. The fault surface might be horizontal, vertical,
or any angle in between. (
What Is a Fault and What Are the Different Types? | U.S. Geological
Survey
, 2011).
Magma chambers are areas under the Earth's surface that accumulate magma
(molten rock). Magma originates in subduction zones, which occurs when one oceanic plate is
pushed beneath another crustal plate. (
Magma Chamber
, n.d.). A volcanic vent is a location on
Earth's surface where lava flows, tephra, and fragmented rocks are erupted, and volcanic gases
are also emitted. They can be found in summit craters, flanks of a volcano, cinder cone base, or
caldera margins. (
Volcanic Vents (U.S. National Park Service)
, n.d.).
The layers of limestone are typically formed in warm, shallow marine environments from
sediment, coral debris, shells, algal, or fecal matter deposited on sea floors such as continental
shelves or platforms. (
Limestone | GeoKansas
, n.d.). It can also be formed by the precipitation of
calcium carbonate that is dissolved in running groundwater. (
Limestone
, 2015). The sandstone
was likely formed by slow-moving water. It is common to see sandstone in a beachy
environment where the waves and tides move the sand back and forth throughout the day over
time. (
Linking Time and Space in Geology: The Sedimentary Processes of Transgression and
Regression
, n.d.). Coal generally forms in a swampy environment where there is dead plant
matter submerged and it transforms from moist, low carbon peat to coal. (
How Coal Works
,
2017). Next is a layer of siltstone which is formed near old deltas, lakes, or seashores, where
calm currents cause less particle suspension and generally formed adjacent to sandstone deposits.
(Mat, 2023). Below the siltstone is another layer of coal and sandstone then schist with granite
below that. Schists are generally formed when pre-existing rocks undergo intense heat and
pressure without entirely melting. It is most found in regions with a history of tectonic activity
and mountain-building processes. (Mat, 2023b). Granite is an intrusive igneous rock that slowly
cools deep underground in magma chambers. This process of slowly cooling magma allows
rocks to easily form and are generally found near active or past plate boundaries. (
Granite and
Granodiorite FAQ - Golden Gate National Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service)
, n.d.).
The soil profiles show soil that is made of the o-horizon, a-horizon, B-horizon, C-
horizon, and what appears to be bedrock. The first soil horizon seems to be a well-developed soil
profile since it consists of three layers. The second soil profile seems to be nearly a well-
developed soil profile as it has three layers but mostly contains the C-horizon making up the
majority of the soil profile. The last soil profile seems to be an immature soil profile as it does
not have the complete O-A-B-C profile. This soil profile can be more commonly found on steep
slopes where the weathering products migrate down slope instead of accumulating in place.
(
Soil
, n.d.). Using the soil profiles and the topographic map the erosion will be greater where the
third soil profile is found on the steeper slopes and mild erosion will occur at the second soil
profile and even less so at the first soil profile. The first soil profile most likely has a denser
organic material allowing it to evade erosion better than the other two soil profiles which have
less organic material.
Underlying geology will play a major impact on the surface area everywhere. Based on
the cross section any overlying neighborhood could be majorly affected by the underlying
geology. The limestone plays a major role as weathering such as, rain, snow, temperature, wind,
and pollutants, may have a degrading effect on the structure of it. Rainwater, especially acid rain
and result in the limestone dissolving, temperature can affect rates of deterioration and in large
stones movement of the stones. (
Limestone: Characteristics, Uses and Problem
, 2016). If it were
to occur to the third layer on limestone situations like caverns can develop allowing for the
possibility of sink holes occurring. Sinkholes are formed when limestone, carbonate rock, salt
beds, or rocks dissolve naturally in groundwater, creating underground spaces and caverns.
These dramatic collapses can occur when the land above the underground spaces is not supported
enough, leading to a sudden collapse of the land surface, ranging from small to large, and can
occur near houses or roads. The most intense dissolution of limestone or dolomite occurs when
water first reaches the rock surface. Preexisting holes, joints, fractures, and bedding planes are
subjected to aggressive disintegration. Rainfall and surface water penetrate through joints,
moving dissolved carbonate rock away from the surface. Surface drainage can speed up
breakdown, but sinkhole debris can form wetlands by ponding water and impeding outflow.
(
Sinkholes | U.S. Geological Survey
, 2018).
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References
Granite - Minerals Education Coalition
. (2018, September 11). Minerals Education Coalition.
https://mineralseducationcoalition.org/minerals-
database/granite/#:~:text=Granite%20is%20an%20intrusive%20igneous,are%20removed
%2C%20exposing%20the%20granite
.
Granite and granodiorite FAQ - Golden Gate National Recreation Area (U.S. National Park
Service)
. (n.d.).
https://www.nps.gov/goga/learn/education/granite-and-granodiorite-
faq.htm#:~:text=Where%20do%20granite%20and%20granodiorite,continental%20rocks
%20near%20subduction%20zones
.
How coal works
. (2017, December 15). Union of Concerned Scientists.
https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-coal-
works#:~:text=Coal%20is%20formed%20when%20dead,or%20brownish%2Dblack%20
sedimentary%20rock
.
Limestone
. (2015, March 14).
https://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/03/limestone.html
Limestone | GeoKansas
. (n.d.).
https://geokansas.ku.edu/limestone#:~:text=Most%20limestone%20layers%20formed%2
0from,calcite%20in%20limestone%20include%20seashells
.
Limestone - PUB2902 | Missouri Department of Natural Resources
. (2020, October 13).
https://dnr.mo.gov/document-search/limestone-
pub2902/pub2902#:~:text=Limestone%20is%20a%20sedimentary%20rock,carbonate%2
0(formula%20CaCO3
).
Limestone: Characteristics, Uses And Problem
. (2016, October 13). GSA.
https://www.gsa.gov/real-estate/historic-preservation/historic-preservation-policy-
tools/preservation-tools-resources/technical-procedures/limestone-characteristics-uses-
and-problem
Linking Time and space in Geology: the sedimentary processes of transgression and regression
.
(n.d.). Blog.
https://serc.carleton.edu/getspatial/blog/linking_timeandspace.html#:~:text=Shale%20is
%20made%20of%20fine,water%20that%20is%20moving%20slowly
.
Magma Chamber
. (n.d.).
https://www.the-science-site.com/magma-chamber.html
Mat, M. (2023a, August 21).
Siltstone
. Geology Science.
https://geologyscience.com/rocks/siltstone/?amp
Mat, M. (2023b, August 26).
Schist
. Geology Science.
https://geologyscience.com/rocks/metamorphic-rocks/schist/?amp
Sandstone - Minerals Education Coalition
. (2017, April 3). Minerals Education Coalition.
https://mineralseducationcoalition.org/minerals-
database/sandstone/#:~:text=Sandstone%20is%20a%20sedimentary%20rock,quartz%20i
s%20called%20quartzose%20sandstone
.
schist page
. (n.d.).
https://www.albany.edu/dept/sisp/jjpowers/WebCollabS05/rocks/schist.html#:~:text=Sch
ist%20(SHIST)%20is%20a%20metamorphic,a%20building%20stone%20in%20construc
tion
.
Sinkholes | U.S. Geological Survey
. (2018, October 9).
https://www.usgs.gov/special-
topics/water-science-school/science/sinkholes
Soil
. (n.d.).
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/geology/weathering-and-erosion/soil
Turgeon, A., & Morse, E. (2023, October 19).
Coal
(J. Evers & Emdash Editing, Eds.). National
Geographic Education. Retrieved November 2, 2023, from
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/coal/
Volcanic Vents (U.S. National Park Service)
. (n.d.).
https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/vents.htm
What is a fault and what are the different types? | U.S. Geological Survey
. (2011, September 30).
https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-fault-and-what-are-different-types
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