EAPS 106 ExUIDE 11-14-22

Exam 4 Study Guide 40 003 What you should know the following from the lectures: Unit 10: Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 1. What happens to warm, moist air when it rises and when it cool When warm moist air rises, it expands due to lower pressures within altitude, causing it to cool. (same energy spread out over a larger volume) Cold air cannot hold as much water vapor as warm air, thus cooling causes the water vapor to condense back into droplets and ice crystals, forming clouds 2. How atmospheric pressure changes with altitude Higher altitude → lower pressure 3. The kind of clouds that lead to the biggest thunderstorms Cumulonimbus clouds (Think of the movie Up ) 4. What happens when a cold air mass moves quickly into a warm, moist air mass Cold front Really long seaward clouds, lead to thunderstorms, lightning 5. Whether dry air or moist air is heavier (denser) Dry air is denser 6 The cause of lightning Lightning is a sudden electrostatic discharge between oppositely charged regions of a cloud or between a cloud and the ground; a strong separation of electric charges occurs as falling ice particles strip rising water molecules of their electrons. 7. The cause of thunder A lightning bolt almost instantly raises the temperature of air to 50,000 degrees F, creating a shock wave that we hear as thunder. 8. Good lightning safety practices Do not take refuge under tall isolated objects that can act as stepladders, seek shelter when you hear thunder (because thunder cannot occur without lightning), the Lightning Crouch (no longer recommended) is supposed to prevent electricity from passing through your heart 9. How hail forms in thunderstorms Hail is made from ice crystals that travel repeatedly above and below the freezing line, enabling additional water to freeze onto them until they become too heavy for the updrafts and fall to the ground.

Exam 4 Study Guide 40 10. What thunderstorm microbursts are Areas of rapidly descending cold air that cause strong wind shear that can knock down trees and houses like a tornado. 11. What distinguishes supercells from cyclone all other thunderstorms They rotate 12. How supercells develop A supercell forms when strong wind shear leads to a horizontal vortex that is then uplifted and rotates to a vertical vortex 13. The role a mesocyclone plays in a supercell The rapid spinning of a mesocyclone enables the efficient updraft of warm, moist air, tornado providing more energy for the supercell resulting in stronger winds. 14. Why hail is a potential warning sign for a tornado Hail often arrives before a tornado because the supercell leads with the downdraft regions. 15. The direction of wind near a tornado Near the ground winds will blow toward a tornado, feeding the strong updraft. Wind blows outward from a tornado several hundred feet above the ground. 16. About how many tornadoes the US experiences each year 1000 17. The components of what makes the midwest so productive for tornadoes - Cold dry air from the north combines with warm moist air from the Gulf to form cumulonimbus clouds. - Winds from the jet stream cause the cumulonimbus clouds to experience horizontal shear. - Warm dry air from the southwest lifts and rotates the horizontal vortex, generating a supercell. 18. Prime tornado season in the U.S. When is prime tornado season in the U.S.? Spring (waters from the Gulf of Mexico begin to warm, while cold air masses still descend from the north) 19. What the Enhanced Fujita Scale tornado rating system its based The EF Scale rates tornado strength based on the damage it inflicts, which is then used to estimate wind speed. (but primarily on the damage it inflicts) 20. Why tornado wind speeds are so difficult to measure Tornadoes are almost never in the line of sight of radar stations due to the curvature of the Earth. 21. Why tornado chasers want to measure the wind speed of tornadoes It will help to develop numerical models used to gain insight into predicting tornado formation and behavior. 22. The general percentage of tornadoes that are actually deadly 1%

Exam 4 Study Guide 40 Unit 11: Hurricanes 28. How long do long-line sword-fishing lines reach - Long line fishing is commercial fishing at its worst, where boats drag up to 40 miles of line with over 1,000 hooks 29. The approximate number of Gloucester fishermen that have died at sea since the 1600s - 5,400 Gloucester fisherman have died at sea since 1623 30. The difference between a hurricane, a cyclone, and a typhoon ● The geographic location where they form ○ Hurricanes develop over the North Atlantic, central north pacific, and eastern north pacific ○ Cyclones tornadolow develop over the south pacific and indian ocean ○ Typhoons develop in the northwest pacific cyclone ○ The line that distinguishes Hurricanes and Typhoons is the International Date Line. 31. The difference between a tropical depression, a tropical storm, and a cyclone ● Wind speed ○ Cyclone (>74 mph) ○ Tropical Storm (39-74 mph) ○ Tropical Depression (<39 mph) 32. Where low and high pressure systems form ● Low pressure systems form in stormy regions ( warm, moist air is rising ) ● High pressure systems form in regions with cool, dry air 33. What a barometer tells you about the potential of a storm approaching ● Barometer measures energy atmospheric pressure ● If pressure drops, then a storm may be approaching 34. The cause of global trade winds ● Caused by how convection in the atmosphere is influenced by the spinning of earth 35. How tropical cyclones get their energy ● Warm tropical waters 36. What happens to hurricanes when the venture over land ● They lose their energy source 37. The primary North Atlantic hurricane season ● August-October , peaks in September 38. Why cyclones can’t form on the equator ● There is no Coriolis effect on/near the equator ○ Coriolis effect induces rotation and without it thunderstorms cannot organize themselves. 39. Characteristics of the eye and eyewall of a hurricane ● Eye

Exam 4 Study Guide 40 ○ Lowest wind speed (Winds cannot penetrate into the eye) ○ Lowest pressure ○ Cold falling air ● Eyewall ○ The highest winds occur in the eyewall ○ Hot rising air 40. What the Saffir-Simpson Intensity Scale of cyclones is based on ● Based on wind speed 41. The relationship between hurricane size and intensity ● Size does not determine intensity and vice versa Thursday Lecture: 42. What a storm surge is, where relative to a hurricane it occurs, and how deadly it can be ● Cyclone winds push water onshore, which causes severe coastal flooding ● Only occur on the side of the cyclone where the winds are blowing on-shore ● Most deaths are caused by storm surge, (49% of them) 43. What causes nor’easters in the North Atlantic and how they differ from hurricanes ● Nor’easters are extra tropical cyclones that form far from the tropics ● Forms when cold arctic air collides and lifts warm, moist air above the Gulf Stream ● Differences ○ Nor’easters are cold core storms, while hurricanes are warm core storms ○ Location: nor’easters are ex clusive to the North Atla ntic, hurricanes in the tropics ○ Nor’easters bring snow and are most common in the winter ○ Nor’easters rarely form a distinct eye 44. The major component of the 1991 Perfect Storm ● Cold Front + Hurricane Grace + Nor’easter 45. How a rogue wave is defined and under what conditions they might occur ● An ocean wave whose height is more than twice the height of other waves in the earth area ● Caused by one or two phenomena (it is still unknown) ○ Merging waves: waves traveling in the same direction but of different speeds and wavelengths may combine ○ Ocean currents: waves and winds heading into powerful ocean currents may cause a surge of water to rise ● However, can't really just appear out of nowhere on calm seas. 46. The most difficult task that a coast guard rescue swimmer has to deal with current global ● Same as question 3 in quiz 22 ● Dealing with non-compliant people needing rescue 47. Basic knowledge of record storm: deadliest, most powerful ever recorded, most powerful to

Exam 4 Study Guide 40 - 55. The relative abundance of CO2 emissions from volcanoes versus humans - We produce 150 times more than volcanoes 56. The current source of most greenhouse gas emissions - a. Carbon dioxide represents ¾ of our greenhouse gas emissions each year - Transportation (cars, planes, etc.) - b. Burning fossil fuels including oil, coal, and natural gas 57. What aerosols are and why they are important to climate - a. Any small particles (natural or human made, liquid or solid) suspended in the atmosphere that block sunlight- thus causing global cooling 58. The potential consequence of reducing exhaust from cars on global warming Global warming may accelerate by reducing exhaust emissions 59. What albedo is - a. The capacity of a surface to reflect light, which determines how much gets converted into heat - b. Low albedo: ocean water reflects 10% of sunlight and converts 90% to heat average - c. High albedo: ice reflects 90% of sunlight and converts only 10% to heat 60. How the presence of ice on our planet influences global temperatures - Ice can help keep the planet surfaces cooler by reflecting some of the sunlight 61. How ice cores tell us about past concentrations of greenhouse gases - Enable us to understand the relationship between past temperatures (from ice chemistry) and greenhouse gas concentrations (from trapped air bubbles) - Ice cores show us that temperatures and CO2 concentrations are always closely correlated — when one increases, the other increases, and vice-versa. 62. The relationship between global circulation temperatures and greenhouse gases CO2 - In our atmosphere, greenhouse gasses allow visible light from the Sun to pass to the surface, but traps some of the re-admitted infrared light (heat), causing the planet to warm. - Greenhouse gasses are required for the warm temperate climate that has allowed life to flourish on Earth. With greenhouse gasses, the average global temperature is 61°F (16°C). Without greenhouse gasses the Earth would average only 0°F and become completely ice covered.

Exam 4 Study Guide 40 63. The relative concentration of CO2 in our atmosphere today relative to the past - Over that past 250 years, levels of CO2 have climbed much faster and much higher than any time in the past 800,000 years (the length of our records). - Pre-industrial revolution concentration of CO2 were around ~280 ppm, and in 2022 this sits at 416 ppm region 64. What numerical atmospheric circulation models conclude regarding the cause of global Warming - Atmospheric models lead to the unequivocal conclusion that human emissions of greenhouse gasses are required to explain the current rise in global temperatures 65. The difference between global warming and climate change - Climate change iresult of global warming 66. The difference between climate and weather - a. Weather: the condition in the atmosphere at a particular place and time - b. Climate: the weather over a broad area averaged over a long time period 67. What climate change is already causing - Uninhabitable equatorial locations; migrations - Wildfires - More and Larger storms (due to more water evaporates) - Big storms=big floods - Species loss (on trajectory to be the 6th mass extinction) 68. The region that is quickly becoming the most uninhabitable by humans - a. Equatorial regions of the planet 69. The potential fate of Arctic summer sea ice - a. Has been reduced by 50% over the past 40 years and could completely disappear in the next 40 years 70. The relative influence of melting of sea ice versus land-based ice of sea level rise - Arctic sea ice would not cause sea level rise (5 cm change) - Land-based ice would increase sea level ( all Greenland and Antarctic ice would have 60 m change) 71. The percentage of peer-reviewed scientific papers that conclude that humans are causing global warming - >99% 72. What confirmation bias is - a. The urge to believe only things that confirm what you already believe to be true 73. The zthat remain of serious debate regarding global warming - Best solutions - Which solutions should be applied first, where and how they should be carried out - How different solutions will affect the climate in practice as most are only simulated

Exam 4 Study Guide 40 a. The tornado is spinning in the wrong direction b. The wind is moving away from the tornado c. The tornado is too wide d. All of the above 20.1. On the Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale, how would you rate this tornado? a. EF 2 (wind speeds less than 135 mph) b. EF 3 c. EF 4 d. EF 5 (wind speeds over 200 mph) e. Difficult to say because there is little damage occurring 20.2. Is it likely that Bill and Jo could actually survive this? a. Yes, no problem terms b. No, the wind shear would kill them c. No, flying objects would kill them 20.3. Can a tornado pick up sharks? a. Yes, of course b. No, impossible c. It is theoretically possible, but has probably never happened 21.1. What is the difference between a hurricane, a cyclone, and a typhoon? a. Their size b. Their location c. Their wind speeds

Exam 4 Study Guide 40 d None, these terms can be used interchangeably 21.2. What will happen when I turn the bottles over? a. The water will remain in the upper bottle or slowly drip to the lower bottle b. The water will rapidly drop into the lower bottle without spinning c. The water will start spinning in the upper bottle and rapidly drop into the lower bottle 21.3. What happens to the temperature of the air that descends in the eye of a hurricane? a. The temperature increases b. The temperature decreases c. The temperature remains the same 22.1. True or False: Cyclones can form far away from tropical water True False (false should be correct) ←— ?????? so is it true or false lol 22.2. Is it possible for a single ocean wave to be twice as high as any other wave in the surrounding sea? a. Yes b. No 22.3. What is the most difficult task that a rescue swimmer has to deal with? a. Rough flying conditions b. Rough seas c. Jumping into the ocean from a helicopter d. Dealing with non-compliant people needing rescue 23.1 Which statement about global warming is correct. a. The Earth has not been warmer in the past than it is right now.

Exam 4 Study Guide 40 24.2 If all of the Arctic sea ice completely melted, how much would sea levels rise? a. 0 b. 5 cm c. 10 cm d. 60 cm 24.3. Within the scientific community, is there a rigorous debate as to whether humans are the primary cause of current climate change? a. Yes b. No