SCI 220 3-2 Milestone One

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3-2 Milestone One: U.S. Energy Mix SCI-220-H2159 NOVEMBER 12, 2023 DUTTERER, HANNAH

Introduction The US energy mix is complex and has mainly relied on non-renewable sources. However, allocating resources to renewable energy is essential to combat climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Nuclear energy is vital in producing power while emitting fewer greenhouse gases. A sustainable energy mix can benefit future generations economically and environmentally. A just approach that considers all stakeholders' needs and concerns is necessary. Historical Consumption Non-renewable Resources Before the Industrial Revolution, which changed corporate practices and brought about technological improvements, wood was the primary energy source in American homes. As a result, wood was gradually replaced by coal in the late 1800s. By generating post-war jobs and meeting energy needs, coal dominated the American energy supply (Fiscor, 2012). In the 20th century, nuclear power became a possible alternative energy source, but the affordability and environmental benefits of coal led to increased use (EIA, 2013). By the 1950s, coal had generated 155 billion kilowatt-hours of power, making it the backbone of the US energy mix. In 1954, the amendment to the Atomic Energy Act led to energy independence and met the growing demand for electricity through advancements in nuclear technology and research. The first civilian nuclear power plant was built in 1957 at the Sodium Reactor Experiment in Santa Susana, California, according to Holl et al. (1985). Since then, nuclear power has been widely 2

adopted as a reliable energy source worldwide. The 1970s oil crisis highlighted the fragility of fossil fuels. The environmental impact of coal usage, including air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, prompted a push to diversify the energy mix. However, the Three Mile Island accident, the Fukushima incident, and the Chernobyl disaster heightened public concern and regulatory scrutiny. Between 1979 and 1988, numerous proposed building projects were canceled, according to the EIA (2017). The service of some plants was delayed until the early 1990s due to protracted licensing and construction procedures. Nuclear power accounted for about 20% of the total electricity generated in the U.S. during this period (EIA, 2013). These disasters sparked public opposition to nuclear energy, leading to a decline in new plant construction and a more cautious approach to an expansive shift toward renewable energy sources. Despite setbacks, nuclear energy remains crucial in some countries' energy mix. Global warming has caused a decrease in coal usage and a shift towards greener alternatives due to environmental concerns. Technology breakthroughs, societal perceptions, and conflict have all influenced the US energy mix. The storage and discharge of surplus energy maintain a steady supply of power. Reducing reliance on fossil fuels and building a more resilient grid may be achieved by diversifying energy sources while promoting sustainable behaviors. Although the construction of new nuclear power plants has slowed down due to caution, nuclear energy is still a feasible means to combat environmental problems, ease dependency on non-renewable resources, and limit greenhouse gas production. Renewable Resources 3

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Diversifying the energy mix by incorporating renewable sources such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric power is crucial for reducing environmental impacts and ensuring long-term energy security. These resources are abundant, indefinitely available, and have the potential to stimulate economic growth. Although renewable resources made up very little of the energy consumed between 1950 and 1990 (Mai et al., 2012), increasing the usage of solar, wind, and hydropower may considerably lower greenhouse gas emissions and lessen reliance on fossil fuels. Transitioning to renewable energy sources is essential for addressing climate change challenges, diversifying the energy supply, reducing dependence on fossil fuels, and creating new job opportunities. Grid technologies, such as advanced sensors and control mechanisms, can optimize renewable energy use and balance supply and demand in real-time. Research and development efforts also focus on improving energy storage technologies like batteries and hydroelectric storage. Despite being a significant industrial power, the United States initially relied on hydroelectric facilities for one-third of its electricity generation (Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, 2022). The rise of solar and wind power has led to a shift towards renewable energy sources, reducing dependence on hydroelectric facilities and improving the resilience of the nation's electricity grid. Other renewable energy sources like geothermal and biomass have emerged due to technological advancements and increased awareness of fossil fuels. Carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies are transforming sectors by reducing greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel-based power generation, according to the IEA (2022b). These technologies, including direct air capture and carbon utilization, offer a steady, reliable, and clean energy 4

supply, reducing reliance on fossil fuels (UMass Amherst Wind Energy Program, n.d.). CCUS infrastructure investment can lead to a sustainable and financially profitable future, providing jobs, diversifying energy sources, and attracting outside investment in regions with abundant carbon capture resources. Current U.S. Energy Mix Energy in the US is produced using both renewable and non-renewable resources; non- renewable resources are the main ones, including coal, nuclear power, natural gas, and petroleum. Nuclear power has witnessed a notable rise in usage throughout the last 15 years because of technological breakthroughs, infrastructural development, and more significant expenditures in research and development, according to Cozzi (2021), which estimates that nuclear power will account for 19.6% of U.S. energy output in 2021. A broader spectrum of customers may now more easily access renewable energy sources, including wind and solar electricity, because of worries about climate change, according to Castaneda (2001). The United States' energy demands have been met since 2010 by combining non- renewable and renewable resources, with nuclear power playing a significant role. Still, the number of new nuclear reactors being built has decreased due to safety and waste management issues. Storage of radioactive waste over an extended period is a severe problem requiring additional thought and funding. Deep geological repositories and recycling are two safer and more efficient ways to get rid of radioactive waste that is being developed because of scientific and technological advancements. 5

Investing in nuclear energy might boost GDP and employment in the renewable energy industry. The Renewable Portfolio Standards saw a rise in 2020 from 27% to 29%, resulting in a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions and the creation of job possibilities (IEA, 2022a). As a result of technological developments, wind, water, and solar energy are becoming increasingly prominent as potential energy sources since they are more economical and efficient. Growing investments in energy produced from renewable sources have resulted in a significantly more diverse energy mix in the United States. Hydropower, wind, and solar power are vital to meet the country's energy demands and reduce its carbon imprint. Energy efficiency techniques and the switch to clean energy sources contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, advancing sustainable development, and creating new jobs in the clean energy industry. As Mai et al. (2012) noted, measures like feed-in tariffs, tax breaks, and renewable portfolio requirements are driving the adoption of renewable energy. Environmental awareness and global agreements have accelerated the widespread adoption of sustainable energy. Encouraging renewable energy technologies, supporting research and development, and implementing policies that promote these technologies can expedite the transition to a carbon- neutral future more efficiently and effectively. The growth of renewable energy has been fueled by technological advancements, making them more competitive with fossil fuels and attracting private sector investment. The IEA (2022a) estimates that about 30% of the power produced in the US is derived from renewable sources, which lowers global warming, increases employment, and fosters economic development. To keep global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius above the above-industrial average, 6

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the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report stresses how critical it is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector (Working Group III, 2022). Shortcomings and Environmental Effects The electricity system's components, including solid waste formation and greenhouse gas emissions, can significantly impact the environment. In the USA, coal combustion residues make up 90% of trash from burning fossil fuels, with coal ash being a byproduct with high concentrations of harmful heavy metals. Greenfield (2023) states that the EPA has implemented regulations to address the safe disposal and management of coal ash, requiring coal-fired power plants to monitor and control the release of toxic substances into the air, water, and soil. Promoting alternative energy sources and reducing coal reliance is crucial to mitigating environmental impact. Only 20% of garbage is used, with the rest disposed of in landfills (Carlson & Adriano, 1993). Air pollution from fossil fuel-burning power plants causes thousands of deaths annually. Approximately 7,500 and 52,000 Americans die before their prime due to pollution (Apt, 2017). Fossil fuels account for nearly 99% of CO2 metric tons produced in 2015, leading to a 1.8°F rise in surface air temperature for 115 years (IEA, 2022b). The climate is the hottest in the history of human civilization, and throughout the next several decades, notable annual average temperature rises are anticipated (Usgcrp, 2018). Nuclear energy is not a "clean" source since it depends on uranium ore, which is only in tiny amounts in the earth's crust, even though uranium fuels current atomic technology. The earth's uranium reserves will run out if nuclear energy is used exclusively, raising extraction costs and harming uranium mining and processing. Because nuclear waste is a radioactive 7

substance, it poses a risk to public health and the environment. However, nuclear meltdowns can be costly and time-consuming due to the high heat generated, the release of radioactive vapors, the fire in reactors, and the release of harmful pollutants into the atmosphere (EnergySage, 2021). Destroying the environment by discharging radioactive contaminants into the air, water, and soil and endangering the long-term health of people and other living things can have disastrous consequences. Whole ecosystems may be upended by it, which would have devastating effects on ecological balance and biodiversity. Investing in and building nuclear, solar, and wind power facilities will ensure sustainable energy generation over the next twenty years. Over one-third of our power is currently produced by gas, while the remaining 27% is paid by coal, which should be phased out. As we improve technologies to harvest renewable energy, we should aim toward a hybrid energy mix of unconventional gas and renewables and a progressive elimination of immoral behaviors. 8

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EIA. (2017, April 27). Most U.S. nuclear power plants were built between 1970 and 1990 . https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=30972 EIA. (2023a, June 13). Frequently asked questions (FAQs) . https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=73&t=11 EIA. (2023b, June 30). Electricity explained: Electricity in the United States . U.S. EIA. https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/electricity/electricity-in-the-us.php EIA. (2023c, October 31). Natural Gas . https://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/hist/n3035us3M.htm EIA. (2023d, November 15). Petroleum & Other Liquids . EIA.gov. https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=PET&s=RWTC&f=M EPA. (2023, July 17). About the U.S. Electricity System and its Impact on the Environment | US EPA . US EPA. https://www.epa.gov/energy/about-us-electricity-system-and-its-impact- environment Fiscor, S. (Ed.). (2012, September 14). 100 Years with Coal Age . Coal Age. https://www.coalage.com/features/100-years-with-coal-age/5/ Gates, B. (2010, February). Innovating to zero! In TED Talks . TED2010. https://www.ted.com/talks/bill_gates_innovating_to_zero? autoplay=true&muted=true&language=en Greenfield, C. (2023, July 11). Coal . IEA. https://www.iea.org/energy-system/fossil-fuels/coal Holl, J. M., Anders, R. M., & Buck, A. L. (1986). United States civilian nuclear power policy, 1954-1984 . IUCAT Bloomington. https://iucat.iu.edu/iub/8269893 IEA. (2020, July 27). Natural gas production in the OECD, 1960-2019 . https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/natural-gas-production-in-the-oecd-1960- 2019 10

IEA. (2022a, August 18). Energy Statistics Data Browser . https://www.iea.org/data-and- statistics/data-tools/energy-statistics-data-browser?country=WORLD&fuel=Energy %20supply&indicator=TESbySource IEA. (2022b, September 22). Cumulative CO2 emissions avoided by nuclear power by country or region, 1990-2020 . https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/cumulative-CO2- emissions-avoided-by-nuclear-power-by-country-or-region-1990-2020-2 International Atomic Energy Agency. (n.d.). Power Reactor Information System (PRIS) . IAEA. https://www.iaea.org/resources/databases/power-reactor-information-system-pris Kolstad, C. D. (2017, March). What is killing the US coal industry? Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIEPR). https://siepr.stanford.edu/publications/policy- brief/what-killing-us-coal-industry Leon, S. B. Y. (Director). (2021). World Nuclear Performance Report 2021. In World Nuclear Association (No. 2021/003). World Nuclear Association. https://world- nuclear.org/getmedia/891c0cd8-2beb-4acf-bb4b-552da1696695/world-nuclear- performance-report-2021.pdf.aspx Mai, T., Sandor, D., Wiser, R., & Schneider, T. (2012). Renewable Electricity Futures Study. Executive Summary. In NREL (TP-6A20-52409). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. https://doi.org/10.2172/1063076 Marsh, J. (2021, November 10). The Top Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy . EnergySage. https://www.energysage.com/about-clean-energy/nuclear-energy/pros-and-cons-nuclear- energy/ MCRAE, G. S., & RUPPEL, C. (2011, June). The future of natural gas . MIT Energy Initiative. https://energy.mit.edu/publication/future-natural-gas/ 11

NEI. (2018, July). U.S. capacity factors by fuel type . Nuclear Energy Institute. https://www.nei.org/resources/statistics/us-capacity-factors-by-fuel-type Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy. (n.d.). History of hydropower . Energy.gov. https://www.energy.gov/eere/water/history-hydropower Office of Nuclear Energy. (2020, May 1). What is Generation Capacity? Energy.gov. https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/what-generation-capacity Ratner, M., & Glover, C. (2014). U.S. Energy: Overview and Key Statistics. In Congressional Research Service (No. R40187). http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/229383.pdf Reidmiller, D. R., Avery, C. W., Easterling, D. R., Kunkel, K. E., Lewis, K., Maycock, T., Stewart, B. C., & USGCRP. (2018). Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: The Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program. https://doi.org/10.7930/nca4.2018 U.S. DOE. (2023). Electric Power Annual 2022. In EIA . U.S. Department of Energy. https://www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/pdf/epa.pdf U.S. NRC. (2022, January 25). About NRC . NRC.gov. https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc.html Wind Energy Program at the UMass Amherst. (n.d.). Wind Energy Center History | Wind Energy Center . umass.edu. https://www.umass.edu/windenergy/about/history Wind Energy Technologies Office. (2015). History of U.S. wind energy . Energy.gov. https://www.energy.gov/eere/wind/history-us-wind-energy Working Group III. (2022). The evidence is clear: the time for action is now. We can halve emissions by 2030. In IPCC . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). https://www.ipcc.ch/2022/04/04/ipcc-ar6-wgiii-pressrelease/ 12

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