Lab2_ Voltage Regulators
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Toronto Metropolitan University *
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Course
404
Subject
Electrical Engineering
Date
Apr 3, 2024
Type
Pages
14
Uploaded by CommodoreOryx4076
Course Title:
Electronic Circuits I
Course Number:
ELE 404
Semester/Year
W2024
Instructor:
Prof. Fei Yuan
Assignment/ Lab Number:
Lab 2
Assignment/Lab Title:
Voltage Regulators
Submission Date:
Feb. 10, 2024
Due Date:
Feb. 11, 2024
Student
LAST Name
Student
FIRST Name
Student
Number
Section
Signature*
El-Hage
Ali
501167729
12
Pope
Pope
501153591
12
Lab Report (Voltage Regulators)
By: Justin Pope & Ali El-Hage
Date of Preparation: February 01, 2024
Table of Contents
1.
Introduction…………..…………..…………
....
…………..…………..……R2
2.
Objectives..…………..…………..…………..…………..…………..………R2
3.
Circuit Under Test..…………..…………..…………..…………..…………R2
4.
Experimental Results..…………..………..…………..…………..……...…R5
5.
Conclusions and Remarks..………….………..…………..…………..……R6
6.
Appendix: Pre-Lab and TA Copy of Results………………………………R9
Page
R1
1. Introduction
The Voltage Regulators Lab 2 report is presented below. The experiments were conducted on
Wednesday, January 31, 2024. The pre-lab report and the TA copy of the experimental results are
placed at the end of the report as an Appendix.
2. Objectives
The objective of this lab was to examine the three simplest types of voltage regulators. The types
of voltage regulators are resistive voltage divider, voltage regulator based on zener diodes, and a
voltage regulator that capitalizes on the more-or-less constant and known state voltage drop of
the diodes. From these investigations, we will then find the load regulation properties of three
types of voltage regulators.
3. Circuit under Test
Figure 1
shows the schematic for the circuit of the “load” constructed in the lab. The “load”
consists of a 2N3904 Bipolar Junction Transistor (JBT) connected to a potentiometer and 3
resistors (100Ω, 560Ω, and 6.8kΩ).
Figure 1.
Circuit of the “load” for this lab.
Figure 2
shows the first schematic of the circuit constructed; two resistors connected to an
adjustable load.
Figure 3
is the same circuit but with a 1N4735, 6.2-V Zener diode instead of
R2.
Figure 4
is also the same circuit, however, in replacement of the R2 resistor, nine 1N4148
diodes are in series.
Page
R2
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Figure 2.
A resistive voltage divider supplying a load.
Figure 3.
A Zener-diode-based voltage regulator supplying a load.
Page
R3
Figure 4.
A diode-based voltage regulator supplying a load.
Figure 5 (a)
and
(b)
shows a screenshot of the Multisim software environment, the same setup
used for the circuits in the lab experimentation.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. (a)
A resistive voltage divider supplying a load and
(b)
a Zener-diode-based voltage
regulator.
Page
R4
4. Experimental Results
In the lab, we measured the V
o
(Output Voltage) based on the V
x
(The node after the Emitter of the BJT
Transistor) produced by the current load (i
L
) that was needed to collect our data accurately. In order to
collect the different current loads (i
L
), we had to turn the potentiometer clockwise in order to reach the
value of V
x
produced to match the current load needed. After measuring the output voltages at each
current load, we then inserted the data found into
Table E1
. The same procedures were taken for each of
the following voltage regulators in order to find the respective V
o
(Output Voltages) based on the different
current loads (i
L
) to complete
Tables E2 and E3
.
Table E1.
Output voltage as a function of load current in the circuit of
Figure 2
.
i
L
[mA]
(v
x
[V])
0
(0)
1
(0.1)
2
(0.2)
3
(0.3)
4
(0.4)
5
(0.5)
6
(0.6)
7
(0.7)
8
(0.8)
v
O
[V]
6.055
5.835
5.488
5.151
4.807
4.455
4.112
3.779
3.425
Table E2.
Output voltage as a function of load current in the circuit of
Figure 3
.
i
L
[mA]
(v
x
[V])
0
(0)
1
(0.1)
2
(0.2)
3
(0.3)
4
(0.4)
5
(0.5)
6
(0.6)
7
(0.7)
8
(0.8)
v
O
[V]
6.043
6.043
6.035
6.03
6.024
6.018
6.012
6.001
5.517
Table E3.
Output voltage as a function of load current in the circuit of
Figure 4
.
i
L
[mA]
(v
x
[V])
0
(0)
1
(0.1)
2
(0.2)
3
(0.3)
4
(0.4)
5
(0.5)
6
(0.6)
7
(0.7)
8
(0.8)
v
O
[V]
6.32
6.28
6.197
6.110
6.004
5.881
5.717
6.024
5.525
Page
R5
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5. Conclusions and Remarks
This section answers the questions raised in the lab manual. The questions have been repeated in
italic bold font, for the ease of reference.
C1. Based on the results of Step P1, and using the relationship
࠵?࠵?
=
࠵?࠵?
/
࠵?࠵?
, calculate
the (fictitious) load resistance that corresponds to each of the currents specified
in Table P1, and complete Table C1. Based on Table C1, then, explain the
relationship that
࠵?࠵?
should have with the output resistance (i.e., the Thevenin
resistance) of the voltage divider such that the deviation of the output voltage
from the no-load output voltage is insignificant.
Table C1.
Equivalent load resistance for the voltage divider of
Figure 5 (a)
.
i
L
[mA]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
v
O
[V]
(Table P1)
6.19
5.84
5.50
5.15
4.80
4.46
4.11
3.76
3.42
R
L
[kΩ]
∞
5.84
2.75
1.72
1.20
0.892
0.685
0.537
0.428
The relationship that R
L
must have with the output resistance of the voltage divider such that the
deviation of the output voltage from the no-load output voltage is insignificant is that R
L
>> R
th
.
When the load resistance is significantly larger than the Thevenin resistance, the load will then
have a small impact on the voltage divider since less current is flowing through it. As a result,
the output voltage will remain close to the no-load output voltage.
C2. For the voltage divider of Figure 5 (a), compare the calculated output voltages
(Table P1) and measured output voltages (Table E2), correspondingly, and
calculate the percent error as
࠵?% =
࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵? ࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?−࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵? ࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?
࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵? ࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?
× 100.
Complete Table C2 and comment on the acceptability of and reasons for the errors.
Table C2.
Percent error between the calculated and measured output voltages of the voltage
divider of
Figure 5 (a).
i
L
[mA]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
v
O
[V]
(Table P1)
6.19
5.84
5.50
5.15
4.80
4.46
4.11
3.76
3.42
v
O
[V]
(Table E1)
6.055
5.835
5.488
5.151
4.808
4.455
4.112
3.779
3.425
e
%
2.23
0.09
0.22
0.02
0.17
0.11
0.05
0.5
0.15
Page
R6
All of the data is nearly perfectly collected when comparing the theoretical values to the
measured values, with all of the percentage errors being almost 0%. This proves our
experimentations were extremely accurate. Like any experiment it is not possible to have exactly
0% error. Reasons for our small deviations are most likely due to the tolerances for the resistors
used.
C3. For the Zener-diode-based voltage regulator of Figure 5 (b), compare the
calculated output voltages (Table P2) and measured output voltages (Table E2),
correspondingly.
Calculate
the
percent
error
and
complete
Table
C3.
Additionally, provide comments on the acceptability of and reasons for the
errors.
Table C3.
Percent error between the calculated and measured output voltages of the voltage
divider of
Figure 5 (b)
i
L
[mA]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
v
O
[V]
(Table P2)
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.64
6.08
5.52
v
O
[V]
(Table E2)
6.043
6.043
6.035
6.030
6.024
6.018
6.012
6.001
5.517
e
%
2.60
2.60
2.74
2.74
2.92
3.02
10.46
1.32
0.05
Likewise, all of the data have low percentage errors. This proves our experimentations were
accurately conducted. Like any experiment it is not possible to have exactly 0% error. Reasons
for our small deviations are most likely due to the tolerances for the resistors used. Also, our
calculations would be dependent on how precisely we got the corresponding current to flow
through the circuit. We manually adjusted the current flow using the potentiometer, however, it
is not possible to get precisely the aimed current flow when adjusting the load.
Page
R7
C4. Plot the
࠵?࠵?
-
࠵?࠵?
curves of Graph E1, Graph E2, and Graph E3 on one frame,
labeled as Graph C4. Based on Graph C4, comment on the capability of each
type
of
voltage
regulator
(i.e.,
voltage
divider,
diode-based,
and
Zener-diode-based) in maintaining its output voltage as the load current rises.
Graph C4 .
V
o
-i
L
curves of Table E2, Table E3, and Table E4
Voltage Divider voltage regulators divide the input voltage down to the desired output
voltage as the current load increases. However, voltage dividers struggle to maintain a stable
output voltage if current load is very high. This is the reason why in
Graph C4
, the output
voltage is not stable. Diode-based voltage regulators can provide a stable output voltage over a
certain range of load current. The Diode-based voltage regulators can sometimes struggle to
maintain a constant output voltage at a certain current load due to the diode's forward voltage
drop becoming much less under high current loads. That's why in
Graph C4
, we see the line is
constant up until it reaches the 6mA mark, where it has a drop in output voltage and goes back
up. Zener Diodes are the best voltage regulator out of the other two. Zener Diode voltage
regulators use its voltage of the zener diode breakdown voltage in order to maintain a steady
output voltage.
Page
R8
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C5.
Aside
from
their
voltage
regulation
performance,
compare
the
Zener-diode-based voltage regulator of Figure 3 with the diode-based voltage
regulator of Figure 4.
The Zener-based voltage regulator is a much better voltage regulator compared to the
diode-based voltage regulator. This is due to the amount of diodes required for the diode-based
voltage regulator needed to maintain a certain output voltage. The Diode-based voltage
regulators can struggle to maintain a constant output voltage at a certain current load due to the
diode's forward voltage drop becoming much less under high current loads. In summary, the
Zener diode voltage regulator offers better voltage regulation compared to the other types of
voltage regulators due to its capability to maintain a good voltage regulation over a range of load
currents.
.
6. Appendix: Pre-Lab and TA Copy of Results
Page
R9
Lab 2: Voltage Regulators
By: Justin Pope
Date of Preparation: January 25, 2024
P1: Simulation of the Circuit of Figure 1 using Multisim
Figure 1. Multisim circuit schematic for a resistive voltage divider supplying a load
࠵?࠵?࠵? ࠵?࠵? ࠵?
࠵?
∴
10−࠵?
࠵?
560
=
࠵?
࠵?
910
+ ࠵?
࠵?
࠵?
࠵?
=
130
21
−
1040
3
࠵?
࠵?
Table P1.
Output voltage as a function of load current in the voltage divider of
Figure 1.
I
L
[mA]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
V
O
[V]
6.19
5.84
5.50
5.15
4.80
4.46
4.11
3.76
3.42
Lab 2: Voltage Regulators
By: Justin Pope
Date of Preparation: January 25, 2024
Graph P1. Output voltage versus load current in the resistive voltage divider of Figure 1.
P2: Simulation of the Circuit of Figure 2 using Multisim
Figure 2. Multisim circuit schematic for an output voltage as a function of load current in
the Zener-diode-based voltage regulator
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Lab 2: Voltage Regulators
By: Justin Pope
Date of Preparation: January 25, 2024
࠵?ℎ࠵?࠵? ࠵?
࠵?
>
1࠵?࠵?, ࠵?
࠵?
= 6. 2࠵? ∴
࠵?
࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?
=
10−6.2
560
= 6. 7࠵?࠵?
࠵?
࠵?
= 6. 7࠵?࠵? − ࠵?
࠵?
࠵?ℎ࠵?࠵? ࠵?
࠵?
<
1࠵?࠵?, ࠵?ℎ࠵? ࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵? ࠵?࠵? ࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵? ࠵?࠵? ࠵?ℎ࠵? ࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵? ࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?࠵?
∴
10−࠵?
࠵?
560
= ࠵?
࠵?
࠵?
࠵?
= 10 − 560࠵?
࠵?
Table P2.
Output voltage as a function of load current in the Zener-diode-based voltage regulator
of
Figure 1.
I
L
[mA]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
V
O
[V]
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.64
6.08
5.52
Graph P2. Output voltage versus load current in the Zener-diode-based voltage of Figure 2.
Page
R10
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