Salmon Farming

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 3 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 4 Background and Context of the Research ....................................................................................................... 4 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................................................. 7 Research Objectives ........................................................................................................................................... 8 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................................. 9 2.1 Overview of the Global Salmon Industry ................................................................................................ 10 2.2 Historical Perspective on Salmon Farming ............................................................................................. 10 2.3 Previous Research on the Sustainability of Salmon Production Methods ............................................ 12 2.4 Economic, Social, and Environmental Implications of Farmed and Wild-Caught Salmon ............... 14 3. METHODS ....................................................................................................................................................... 15 3.1. Description of the Study Design ........................................................................................................ 16 3.2. Selection of Study Areas ..................................................................................................................... 16 3.3. Data Collection Methods .................................................................................................................... 16 3.4. Resource Inputs Analysis ................................................................................................................... 16 3.5. Ecological Impact Assessment ........................................................................................................... 17 3.6. Socioeconomic Implications Assessment .......................................................................................... 17 3.7. Data Analysis Techniques ................................................................................................................... 17 4. RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................................... 17 4.1. Resource Inputs: Norway and Chile ....................................................................................................... 18 Theme 1: Fishmeal Consumption Patterns ............................................................................................... 18 Theme 2: Freshwater Usage Efficiency ..................................................................................................... 18 4.2 Ecological Impact Assessment: Norway and Chile ................................................................................. 18 Theme 1: Habitat Disruption in Salmon Farming ................................................................................... 18 Theme 2: Genetic Interactions and Biodiversity ...................................................................................... 18 4.3 Socioeconomic Implications Assessment: Norway and Chile ................................................................ 19 Theme 1: Job Creation Dynamics .............................................................................................................. 19 Theme 2: Cultural Significance and Indigenous Impacts ....................................................................... 19 5. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................................... 19 5.1 Interpretation of Results ........................................................................................................................... 20 5.3. Identification of Key Patterns or Trends ................................................................................................ 22 Farmed Salmon Potential Vs. Externalities .............................................................................................. 24 6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................ 26 6.1. Implications of the Study ......................................................................................................................... 27 6.2. Suggestions for Further Research ........................................................................................................... 28

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 6 The substantial dependence on wild-caught fish as feed for farmed fish diets contributes to the overfishing of small forage fish, critical components of marine ecosystems. Escapes of farm salmon exacerbate issues by fostering genetic interactions between wild and farmed salmon populations, diminishing genetic diversity in wild salmon populations and jeopardizing the species' long-term survival (Clavelle et al., 2019). The social and economic repercussions of farmed salmon are diverse across locations. While salmon farming can stimulate economic growth and create job opportunities in certain regions, it also exacts adverse effects in many areas. Beyond Indigenous communities with cultural ties to wild salmon, local fisheries and economies reliant on wild salmon face potential adverse impacts, leading to significant social and economic challenges. Many farms grapple with contamination issues, harboring heavy metals and organic pollutants that can persist during processing, triggering consumer health concerns. Nutrient pollutants present a central concern, as salmon farms are linked to nutrient pollution, primarily due to excess feed and fish waste. The accumulation of excess nutrients in surrounding waterways fuels eutrophication. This process renders water over-nutrient-rich, fostering harmful algae blooms and subsequent oxygen-depleted "dead zones" in marine ecosystems. Farmed salmon demands substantial resource inputs, including fishmeal, freshwater, and energy, leading to inefficiencies and a considerable carbon footprint. The industry's sustainability is further complicated by the absence of comprehensive and enforceable global standards for aquaculture salmon quality, contributing to operational variations. Amidst the burgeoning global food demands and the perpetual pursuit of sustainability, the salmon industry presents both promise and challenges (Naylor et al., 2000). While farmed salmon holds the potential to bolster food security and foster job opportunities, it concurrently introduces significant environmental challenges, raising apprehensions about its long-term viability (Taranger et al., 2014).

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 9 insights for a diverse array of stakeholders, including policymakers, environmentalists, conservationists, fishery industry stakeholders, academics, researchers, local communities, consumers, and international organizations. The overarching goal is to contribute to informed decision-making, policy formulation, and future research initiatives, ultimately fostering a sustainable and responsible salmon industry. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW The literature review embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the comparative sustainability analysis between farmed and wild-caught salmon. It intricately examines the multifaceted dimensions of resource inputs, ecological impacts, and socioeconomic implications inherent in these practices. Informed by an extensive compilation of findings from sixteen diverse peer-reviewed sources, this review aspires to untangle the complexities woven into salmon production. Scrutinizing the environmental externalities, socioeconomic consequences, and alignment with the SDGs intrinsic to both salmon harvesting methods lays a robust foundation for discerning which approach holds the most promise for long-term sustainability (Cavalli et al., 2021). This section explores the key players, market dynamics, and evolving trends within the global salmon industry, providing a comprehensive understanding of its current landscape. 2.1 Overview of the Global Salmon Industry The global salmon industry has undergone a remarkable transformation, evolving from predominantly wild-caught practices to a significant reliance on salmon farming or aquaculture. Once primarily sourced from natural habitats, salmon is produced through diverse farming practices, contributing substantially to the world's seafood market. Salmon farming has emerged as a prevalent alternative to conventional wild salmon catch, particularly as wild-caught salmon populations face threats from overfishing, habitat destruction, and various environmental factors (Glover et al., 2017). According to Naylor et

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 12 Research by Meisch and Stark (2019) scrutinizing the environmental impact of salmon production has been instrumental in unraveling the complexities of both farmed and wild-caught practices. Issues such as habitat disruption, water pollution, and the depletion of wild salmon populations due to overfishing have been subject to intense investigation. Environmental externalities related to farmed salmon, including waste run-off, escapes, and disease transmission, have also been scrutinized ( Engle & van Senten, 2022). These studies contribute to a nuanced understanding of the ecological ramifications of different salmon production methods ( Engle & van Senten, 2022; Meisch & Stark, 2019). Studies evaluating resource efficiency in salmon production have explored aspects such as feed conversion ratios, energy consumption, and the utilization of raw materials ( Bjørndal & Tusvik, 2019; Cadillo-Benalcazar et al., 2020). The focus has been on the efficiency of converting inputs, such as fishmeal and freshwater, into salmon output. Comparisons between farmed and wild-caught salmon in terms of resource utilization offer valuable insights into the sustainability of each method. Extensive investigations have been conducted into the ecological consequences of salmon harvesting, encompassing both farmed and wild-caught practices. Research by Parker (2018) has delved into the impacts on marine ecosystems, biodiversity, and the genetic diversity of salmon populations. Studies on the interactions between wild and farmed salmon, particularly concerning genetic introgression, have shed light on the potential threats to the long-term sustainability of wild salmon stocks. These findings provide a foundation for understanding the ecological intricacies of different salmon production methods ( Bailey & Eggereide, 2020).

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 15 In contrast, wild-caught salmon face habitat destruction due to various factors, including river damming and pollution. Pollution from various sources such as aquaculture waste and processing plants poses risks to aquatic ecosystems ( Solås et al., 2020; Ziegler & Hilborn, 2023). Understanding the ecological consequences of different production methods is vital for developing sustainable practices that mitigate these environmental impacts. 3. METHODS In adopting a qualitative research design, this study delves into the intricate dynamics of salmon production in Norway and Chile, relying on a comprehensive review and synthesis of existing secondary data sources. The primary objective is to provide an in-depth understanding of the economic, social, and environmental implications associated with farmed and wild-caught salmon in these distinctive regions. 3.1. Description of the Study Design The study design entails meticulously exploring available literature, reports, and peer- reviewed articles on salmon production methods in Norway and Chile. As per Osmond et al. (2023), by harnessing secondary data, the research endeavored to analyze and synthesize information from diverse sources, crafting a holistic narrative that unveiled the sustainability landscape within the salmon industry. 3.2. Selection of Study Areas Norway and Chile emerged as strategic study areas due to their significant roles as major contributors to the global salmon industry. These nations exhibit unique approaches to salmon farming, reflecting diverse socioeconomic, environmental, and cultural contexts (Ziegler & Hilborn, 2023). The deliberate selection of Norway and Chile facilitates a nuanced comparison of practices enabled a robust analysis of the implications associated with farmed and wild-caught salmon.

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 18 4.2 Ecological Impact Assessment: Norway and Chile Theme 1: Habitat Disruption in Salmon Farming Norway showcases a proactive approach to mitigating habitat disruption associated with salmon farming, employing advanced waste management systems (Karras et al., 2023). In Chile, a clear need for enhanced regulation to address habitat concerns, particularly in open-water farming practices, is evident, pointing towards potential improvements at the industry level ( Quiñones et al., 2019). Theme 2: Genetic Interactions and Biodiversity The ecological impact assessment unveils nuanced differences in genetic interactions. Norway demonstrates efforts to prevent genetic introgression between farmed and wild salmon populations, emphasizing preserving genetic diversity (Bradbury et al., 2020). In Chile, persistent challenges necessitate a closer examination of the coexistence and potential genetic impacts on wild salmon ( Chávez et al., 2019; Quiñones et al., 2019). 4.3 Socioeconomic Implications Assessment: Norway and Chile Theme 1: Job Creation Dynamics Norway's salmon industry exemplifies a balanced job distribution, fostering local employment in the fishing and processing sectors ( Afewerki et al., 2023). In Chile, a noticeable concentration of jobs in specific regions underscores the imperative for a more equitable distribution strategy. This suggests the need to promote socioeconomic development across diverse geographical areas in the Chilean context ( Chávez et al., 2019). Theme 2: Cultural Significance and Indigenous Impacts The socioeconomic implications assessment reveals the cultural significance of wild- caught salmon for indigenous communities in both Norway and Chile. Norway showcases collaborative efforts with indigenous groups, while Chile grapples with challenges in

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 21 freshwater usage, and potential habitat disruption (Ziegler & Hilborn, 2023). In contrast, while culturally significant, wild-caught salmon faces challenges related to overfishing, habitat destruction, and socioeconomic fluctuations. Norway's salmon farming industry demonstrates a more advanced and sustainable approach, emphasizing resource efficiency, habitat preservation, and genetic diversity. In contrast, Chile transitions towards sustainability but grapples with challenges, particularly in freshwater usage and habitat regulation. The diversity in approaches emphasizes the need for context-specific strategies to enhance the sustainability of both practices (Brown et al., 2022). 5.3. Identification of Key Patterns or Trends The initial hypothesis suggested that while farmed salmon may enhance food security and job opportunities, the environmental cost is significantly higher than that of wild-caught salmon. The findings support this hypothesis to some extent. Farmed salmon contributes to food security and employment but comes with environmental challenges, including resource dependence and habitat disruption. Wild-caught salmon, while culturally significant, faces threats from overfishing and habitat destruction (Poblete et al., 2019). Key patterns and trends emerge from the comparative analysis. The shift towards alternative protein sources in Chilean fish feed signifies a positive trend towards sustainability. Norway's focus on advanced waste management and genetic diversity preservation demonstrates a commitment to environmental stewardship. The identification of regional disparities in job creation and the cultural significance of wild-caught salmon underscores the need for targeted interventions to address socioeconomic and cultural implications. In summary, this chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of the research findings, offering insights into the sustainability of farmed and wild-caught salmon in Norway and Chile. The nuanced interpretation of results emphasizes the importance of a balanced approach that considers economic, environmental, and socio-cultural dimensions for a more sustainable

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 22 salmon industry. The findings provide insights into the vast potential for marine aquaculture as a suitable replacement for wild-caught salmon but, at the same time, points out the environmental, social, and economic externalities that accompany the industry today. Authors such as Costa-Pierce (2022), Norman et al. (2019), Golden et al. (2016), and Hilborn et al. (2018) emphasize the significance of aquaculture's potential to address the mounting challenges associated with declining wild salmon populations and habitat destruction. While many authors and literature underscore the potential of aquaculture salmon farming as a sustainable replacement, there is significant doubt from many experts who describe an overwhelming variety of externalities accompanying the salmon farming industry. Although criticisms of salmon farming arise from the evidence of socio-environmental externalities, the overarching consensus from the literature is that wild-caught salmon alone is not a sustainable or viable practice. The traditional method of harvesting wild salmon comes with many externalities that encompass overfishing, habitat destruction, fluctuating availability, and significant economic and food security concerns. According to Robards and Greenberg (2007), the abundance and diversity of salmon stocks have declined, with many now in crisis and the declining salmon stocks are due to “human economic growth actions that ignore biological underpinnings. The profound and far-reaching impacts of overfishing on wild salmon populations and the surrounding natural ecology are emphasized in the literature. In Naylor’s “Effect of Aquaculture on World Fish Supplies (2000), " the authors underscore the significance of the concern that overfishing depletes salmon populations and threatens the ecological balance of surrounding ecosystems. This depletion results in habitat destruction, a theme further supported by Costa-Pierce (2002) in “Ecological Aquaculture: The Evolution of the Blue Revolution.” Both pieces of literature point to habitat destruction from salmon overfishing having severe implications for many species and ecosystems.

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 23 Furthermore, the fluctuating availability of wild-caught salmon brings economic challenges and food security concerns. As Tacon et al. (2020) noted, the variability in wild salmon causes cost and price volatility, resulting in food availability issues. Wild-caught salmon is generally more expensive due to expenses in capturing and maintaining populations, a point reinforced by Hilborn et al. (2018). The price volatility of wild salmon leads to economic inaccessibility and food security concerns in many communities. Another main concern in the literature revolves around the quality and safety of wild-caught salmon, especially as marine pollution, biomagnification, and lack of quality control become more pressing issues. Given the profound implications of these externalities on ecological health, socioeconomic well-being, and food security, the literature collectively highlights the need for a more sustainable and dependable approach to salmon production. As wild-caught salmon faces many challenges that threaten its viability, it is essential to explore the potential of sustainable salmon farming practices. However, it is also crucial to recognize that the transition to farm salmon comes with challenges and trade-offs, a topic that will be explored in the subsequent sections of this discussion. The potential of farmed salmon to provide a more viable alternative to traditional wild salmon harvesting is a crucial point of discussion in the context of this research. Various sources suggest that sustainable farming practices can help address the externalities associated with declining salmon populations and overfishing. Farmed salmon offers the promise of a more controlled and sustainable food source, potentially reducing some of the critical issues inherent in wild salmon harvesting. However, much of the literature does point towards salmon farming’s potential as a sustainable alternative to the traditional wild-caught method. Subsequently, many authors also pointed to the various social, environmental, and

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 24 economic externalities associated with the practice. This portion of the literature review will explore the potential and flaws of salmon farming, as discussed by the literature. Authors such as Song (2019), Troell et al. (2014), and Froehlich et al. (2017) emphasize the importance of sustainable practices, such as recirculating aquaculture systems, containment measures, and eco-friendly feeds, to reduce the environmental externalities associated with farmed salmon. When applied correctly, these practices can dramatically improve the sustainability of salmon farming facilities. A fundamental aspect of the potential of farmed salmon revolves around resource efficiency and sustainability. Boyd et al. (2020) emphasize the significance of adopting sustainable practices to reduce environmental externalities. RAS is engineered to recycle and reuse water efficiently, minimizing waste and reducing the ecological footprint associated with traditional open-water aquaculture. Salmon farming practices incorporating containment measures, particularly land-based facilities, contribute to habitat preservation and ecosystem protection, alleviating habitat destruction. Developing eco-friendly and sustainable fish feeds aids in conserving marine ecosystems and mitigating overfishing, reducing reliance on wild- caught fish as a primary ingredient in salmon diets. Another significant aspect of farmed salmon's potential is its role in genetic conservation and environmental responsibility. Alvanou et al. (2023) established that sustainable salmon farming practices if appropriately managed, can help preserve genetic diversity in wild salmon populations by preventing genetic interactions with farmed salmon, which is essential for the long-term health and resilience of salmon species. Additionally, the literature underlines the importance of mitigating nutrient pollution and eutrophication associated with salmon farming. Sustainable practices aim to manage nutrient inputs and waste to reduce environmental impacts responsibly.

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 25 According to Hersoug et al. (2019), farmed salmon offers economic opportunities and impacts local communities positively. It plays a significant role in countries' GDP and generates export revenue, leading to job opportunities and local economic growth. However, the literature also acknowledges potential adverse effects in regions reliant on wild salmon. Salmon farming can lead to social externalities, particularly in regions where indigenous communities have cultural and historical ties to wild salmon. It emphasizes respecting local traditions and livelihoods while minimizing social externalities. Despite its potential, the literature underscores the challenges and trade-offs associated with farmed salmon. Social impacts, especially ones in regions where indigenous communities have cultural and historical ties to wild salmon, need careful consideration. Sustainable efforts, although crucial, are not without environmental concerns, such as escaped farm salmon and their genetic interactions with wild populations, necessitating further research and innovation ( Macaulay et al., 2022) . The resource inputs required by salmon farming and the need for comprehensive global standards and regulations are recognized in the literature as critical challenges that must be addressed for a sustainable and eco-conscious future of salmon production. In conclusion, the literature provides a comprehensive view of the potential and externalities of salmon farming. Adopting sustainable practices in salmon farming plays a pivotal role in mitigating the environmental and ecological externalities associated with traditional wild salmon harvesting ( Baldwin- Cantello et al., 2023) . Nevertheless, it is essential to consider the social, environmental, and economic aspects in a balanced manner to create a sustainable and eco-conscious future for salmon production. 6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study has thoroughly investigated the intricacies of farmed and wild-caught salmon production in Norway and Chile, presenting a nuanced understanding of these

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 26 practices' economic, social, and environmental implications. The findings highlight the importance of sustainable practices, innovative technologies, and comprehensive governance to mitigate externalities associated with salmon harvesting methods. For wild salmon, the emphasis is on responsible management and conservation efforts to ensure the long-term viability of wild populations. In contrast, adopting recirculating aquaculture systems, containment measures, and eco-friendly feeds is seen as a way to reduce the environmental impact of farmed salmon. In salmon farming, Norway heavily relies on fishmeal, focusing on optimizing feed conversion ratios. In contrast, Chile embraces a diversified approach, incorporating alternative protein sources. Norway showcases efficient freshwater utilization through recirculating aquaculture systems, while Chile exhibits a notable dependence on freshwater resources, necessitating further exploration into sustainable water management. Additionally, Norway employs advanced waste management systems to mitigate habitat disruption, while Chile encounters challenges, particularly in open-water farming practices, indicating a need for enhanced regulations. As a salmon-producing country, Norway prioritizes preserving genetic diversity and preventing genetic introgression between farmed and wild salmon. In Chile, persistent challenges necessitate a closer examination of potential genetic impacts on wild salmon. Norway demonstrates a balanced distribution of jobs, supporting local communities, whereas Chile exhibits a concentration of jobs in specific regions, highlighting the need for a more equitable distribution strategy. The cultural importance of wild-caught salmon for indigenous communities in both countries is evident. Norway showcases collaborative efforts, while Chile faces challenges necessitating inclusive policies. 6.1. Implications of the Study The implications of this study are significant for various stakeholders involved in the salmon industry, environmental management, and policymaking. The findings underscore the

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 27 necessity for context-specific strategies to enhance the sustainability of both farmed and wild- caught salmon practices. The study emphasizes the environmental challenges of fishmeal reliance, freshwater usage, and habitat disruption in salmon farming. Recommendations for improved waste management and habitat regulation could contribute to mitigating environmental impacts. Addressing regional disparities in job creation calls for targeted interventions to promote socioeconomic development across diverse geographical areas. The study underscores the importance of inclusive policies and community engagement initiatives, especially regarding the cultural significance of wild-caught salmon ( Afewerki et al., 2023). Government and regulatory bodies should focus on strengthening regulations, particularly in Chile, is crucial to addressing habitat concerns in open-water farming practices. Promoting sustainable water management practices and incentivizing the adoption of recirculating aquaculture systems can contribute to industry sustainability ( Cavalli et al., 2021). Salmon industry players should diversify fish feed sources and reduce reliance on fishmeal to enhance the sustainability of salmon farming. Collaboration with local communities, especially in Chile, is essential to address concerns related to land use, water resources, and environmental impacts. Engaging in collaborative efforts with industry stakeholders is imperative to ensure the cultural significance of wild-caught salmon is respected and preserved (Glover et al., 2017; Iversen et al., 2020). 6.2. Suggestions for Further Research While this study provides valuable insights, there are avenues for further research to deepen our understanding of sustainable salmon production:

FARMED AND WILD SALMON 28  Investigate the effectiveness of emerging technologies, such as recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), in addressing environmental challenges.  Explore the socioeconomic implications of salmon farming in different geographical contexts and cultures.  Conduct a longitudinal study to assess the long-term impacts of salmon farming practices on genetic diversity and ecological health. This research serves as a foundational exploration of the sustainability dynamics within the salmon industry, offering actionable recommendations for stakeholders and suggesting avenues for future research initiatives. The balanced consideration of economic, environmental, and socio-cultural dimensions is crucial for fostering a more sustainable and responsible salmon industry in the years to come. References Afewerki, S., Asche, F., Misund, B., Thorvaldsen, T., & Tveteras, R. (2023). Innovation in the Norwegian aquaculture industry. Reviews in Aquaculture , 15 (2), 759-771.

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