Week 9.1_Cell Cycle

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An Intro to Chromosomes, and the Cell Cycle Week 9 – Monday October 16, 2023
Quiz #2 mean score was: • 8.2 for the 474 students that took the quiz • 7.3 for all students, including the 54 students that did not take the quiz. • There are two more weeks of Module #2 • Exam #2 is on October 30, 2023. • If you have not attended a recitation, make sure you attend one before this module is over. Updates and reminders
Week 9 Learning Objectives Describe chromosomes, centromeres, and chromatids; and understand how to describe the chromosomal contents of a nucleus Learn the stages of the cell cycle and how it is regulated (and becomes dysregulated in disease)
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Summarizing Biotechnology Biotechnology, “The use of biological agents for technological advancement ”. A recent term, but has been around a long time. Breeding of domestic animals and plants. Has application in many areas, forensics, agriculture, medicine, etc. Currently used to describe molecular technology, i.e., genomics, creation of transgenic organisms, GMO and CRISPR-Cas9
A Few Words About Chromosomes A cell’s double stranded DNA is its genome . In prokaryotes, the genome is composed of a single circular, double stranded DNA. This region is called the nucleoid . P lasmids , smaller loops of DNA, may be exchanged with other bacteria or pick them up from the environment. This is a means of genetic recombination for bacteria. https://sciencenotes.org/prokaryotic-vs-eukaryotic-similarities-and-differences /
A Few Words About Chromosomes A cell’s double stranded DNA is its genome . In eukaryotes, the genomes are composed of a number of double stranded linear DNA called chromosomes . Genome is entirely in nucleus. The number of chromosomes is variable and is specific for each species. https://sciencenotes.org/prokaryotic-vs-eukaryotic-similarities-and-differences /
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The Human Genome Humans have 46 chromosomes, but better to think of it as 23 pairs! Each pairs of chromosome is said to be homologous , one being derived from your mom the other from your dad. Note pairs are equal in length and has same genes. mom dad Last set are sex chromosomes: XY=male and XX=female https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Karyotype This is why you look like your mom and dad!
The Human Genome Homologous chromosomes: Thus, there are two copies of each genes in the homologous pairs! The order and location of the genes are also the same. Provides 2 copies of each gene Order of genes on each chromosome is the same. Does the genes on each homologous carry the same information?
The following is true of homologous chromosomes A. They are a pair of chromosomes derived from each parent of the individual. B. Homologous chromosomes have the same gene and are located in the same location of the chromosomes. C. It is a term for any pair of chromosomes. D. It is a term for chromosomes that are derived from one of the parents. E. Both A and B are correct.
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The Human Genome Homologous chromosomes: Since the genes on each chromosomes are the same, do they carry the same information? NO! Lucy and Maria Aylmer are fraternal twins. Their mother is biracial and their father is Caucasian. https://www.cnn.com/2015/03/03/living/feat-black-white-twins/index.html
The Human Genome Homologous chromosomes: The genes of paired homologous chromosomes may code for alternate or the same information and are called alleles . Hypothetically, using the fraternal twins, let us say that the alleles that codes for hair color is on the homologous chromosomes below: Mom has black hair and contribute an allele for black hair. Dad has brown hair and contributes an allele for red hair. Hair color genes This is why Maria has black hair. sperm egg
The Human Genome Homologous chromosomes: Hypothetically, this time use Lucy, let us say in a different set of chromosomes that codes for hair color is on the homologous chromosomes below: Mom has black hair, but this time contribute an allele for red hair. Dad has brown hair and contributes an allele for red hair. Hair color genes In order for Lucy to have red hair, both parents have to contribute an allele for red hair. sperm egg
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The Human Genome Homologous chromosomes: In the last example, both parents had to carry an allele for red hair in order for Lucy to have red hair. When both alleles are the same, they are said to be homozygous . For Maria, one of the alleles had to be for black hair in order for her to have black hair. When alleles differ they are said to be heterozygous . Homozygous alleles (dad’s homologous chromosomes?) Heterozygous alleles (mom’s homologous chromosomes)
The Human Genome Homologous chromosomes: Most cells in the human genome have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) and are said to be diploid (2n) . Gametes , i.e., eggs and sperms in humans, have half the number of chromosomes of diploid nuclei, 23 , and are said to be haploid (1n) . Haploid nuclei are derived from diploid nuclei by meiosis : Where a cell with diploid number of chromosome divides to give you four cells with haploid number of chromosomes, each cell has one complete set of homologous chromosomes. Homologous pair The “X” represent a chromosome that has replicated into two chromatids , held together at intersection by a centromere Chromatids in separate cells after first division. Four haploid, genetically distinct cells after meiosis completed
The Human Genome Gametes have 23 chromosomes, one from each pair of homologous chromosomes that are randomly assorted:
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The Human Genome Human life cycle: What parent determines the sex of the baby? 23 chromosomes 23 chromosomes Diploid number is reestablished after fertilization. Gametes have one of each chromosomes
Gametes contain _____________ the number of chromosomes as a diploid nucleus. A. Twice B. Half C. Four times D. Three quarters E. One third
Human Genome Has 21,000+ Genes Remember: genes are stretches of DNA that encode proteins Organisms vary widely in how many genes are present Species Number of genes Homo sapiens 21,000 Mus musculus 24,000 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 6,000 Caenorhabditis elegans 20,000 Drosophila melanogaster 13,000 Escherichia coli 5,000 1918 flu virus 8 Adapted from: Pray 2008, Nature Education Tumpey et al., 2005 Science
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Chromosome number varies across species Species Diploid Chromosome Number Human 46 C. elegans 12 Drosophila 8 Hermit Crab 254 Dog 78 Ninan 1958 Cytologia Adder’s -tongue Ferns Diploid chromosome number is 1440
Transitioning to Cell cycle The last three weeks covered events and structures at the molecular to subcellular level. Now we will go over events that can be seen through a microscope. We begin with the cell cycle . The division of one cell that becomes two daughter cells
Phases of the Cell cycle Interphase is when the following events in the cell cycle will occur: Cell growth DNA replicated Protein synthesis Mitotic phase is when the replicated DNA and cytoplasm will separate into roughly equal quantities and be partitioned into two cells. The partitioning of the original cell into two cells is referred to as cytokinesis . Cytokinesis most often will follow the mitotic phase, but not always. If cytokinesis does not take place, there will be two or more nuclei in a cell. Mitosis is the division of one nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei.
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Cell Cycle Two primary stages: Interphase Growth and preparation for cell division and mitosis. Mitotic phase Mitosis : Division of the nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei. Cytokinesis : division of one cell into two cells.
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Interphase Figure 10.5 G1 phase : Cell growth and increases its macromolecules.
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Interphase S phase : DNA replication occurs. This is when a chromosome forms two chromatids , identical copies of itself. G2 : Additional cell growth, preparation for mitosis by synthesizing proteins and increasing number of organelles. When G2 ends, the mitotic phase will begin. Homologous pair of chromosomes Following replication each chromosome now consist of two sister chromatids. http://cyberbridge.mcb.harvard.edu/mitosis_4.html
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Cell Cycle Rates Vary With Different Cell Types Neurons Cardiomyocyte Muscle Intestine Immune Cells Skin Slow Fast
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Cell Cycle: Checkpoints Checkpoints occur during cell cycle to ensure that cell has all that is needed to complete cell division: G1 phase: checks size, protein quantity and DNA damage. S phase: Checks to ensure DNA has completely replicated into identical sister chromatids. G2: checks size, protein reserve, DNA duplication & damage. Mitotic phase: Check mitotic spindle and kinetochores attached to all chromatids. Errors that occur may be serious ones. Cells divide uncontrollably, i.e., cancer.
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Henrietta Lacks Cell line derived from cancerous tumor from Henrietta Lacks Collected without her consent before she died They became a model cell line and are used all over the world to make important discoveries (“HeLa”) https://youtu.be/22lGbAVWhro Henrietta Lacks Foundation
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Mitosis and Cytokinesis Upon a cell’s completion of the cell cycle, it now goes into mitosis and cytokinesis (Wednesday) or go through the cell cycle again.
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Replication of chromosomes into two sister chromatids occurs during: A. G 1 phase B. G 2 phase C. S phase D. M phase E. Mitotic phase
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Summary Prokaryotic cells have genomes consisting of a single circular DNA, the nucleoid. They also have smaller circular DNA, plasmids, that may be expressed. Eukaryotic cells have genomes that are enclosed in a nucleus and are composed of chromosomes. The chromosomes occur in pairs, one derived from the mother’s genome, the other from the dad’s genome. These pairs are homologous chromosomes. Most cells in humans have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes. This is referred to as the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes. Gametes have 23 chromosomes, one chromosome from each homologous pairs. This is the haploid (1n) number of chromosomes. The one set of chromosome are randomly selected .
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Summary The cell cycle is the division of one cell into two daughter cells. Two phases Interphase, where the following steps occur: G1 S G2 Mitotic phase. Mitosis Cytokinesis
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