BIO201IN Exam 1 Study Guide: Key Concepts from Modules 1-5

BIO201IN Exam 1 Study Guide (Modules 1-5) When you answer the questions in this SG, please make sure you follow the following criteria…  Your answers are typed in a different font color ( red , blue , etc.)  Your answers to any of the multiple-choice practice questions are different colors or highlighted in a different color. o NOTE – most of the practice questions are images. You may use the draw tool or insert > text box tool above. o Please be sure to explain underneath the question why you chose that answer.  Your answers are complete thoughts and thorough.  Please be sure to site the lessons or other recourses that helped you with your answer o NOTE – all can be found in the lessons. I recommend you start in the lessons before using the web for extra help. You can also ask me as well!  Please feel free to go above and beyond simply typing answers. You can paste in images from the lessons (and explain them), create diagrams, or do anything else that makes sense to you in answering the questions completely.  Do not hesitate to email me any specific uncertainties or concerns you have about the questions in this SG. I am here to help!

Question 1 topic: Biofeedback a) Answer the following exam practice question The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. Question 2 topic: Anatomy a) Define anatomy and give three areas of specialization in this field. In your response, describe what sets one apart from the others. Anatomy is the study of structures within the human body. Anatomy does not include the function of biological structures. For example, studying Three areas of anatomy are gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy, and regional anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of larger structures in the body that can be seen without magnification. Microscopic anatomy studies structures that can only be seen under a microscope. Cell and tissues are areas of study in microscopic anatomy. Regional anatomy studies the interrelationships between structures within a localized area of the body, such as the chest. This type of anatomy studies how the different structures within a region work together for the specific region. Systemic anatomy studies how the structures within an organ system work together to support the function of the system

b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. 1. Identifying if infants who died of SIDS have structural abnormalities in brain regions that control breathing. Anatomy . Studying structural abnormalities would be anatomy because structures within the brain are being examined. 2. Measuring heart rate when head is down compared to when the individual is standing. Physiology . Studying the heart rate would be physiology because the heart rate is not a structure, its a physiological component of structures working together. 3. Determining the amount of osteoblast activity in bones of athletes. Physiology . Studying the activity of a cell is physiology. The activity of a cell would be a function of the cell. However, The study of cells is considered microscopic anatomy. Therefor, I’m stumped it could be considered cytology (microscopic anatomy). 4. Charting extracellular characteristics of lung cells in COVID patients. Anatomy . Charting characteristics of cells is anatomy if structural characteristics of the cell are being studied. If physiological characteristics are being studied than I feel it would be physiology.

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Question 3 topic: Physiology a) Define physiology. What separates this field of study from anatomy? In nearly each module, we will cover both topics, so ours is technically two classes in one. How are you going to keep on track with anatomy and physiology of the four systems we investigate? Physiology is the study of mechanisms and functions in a living system and focuses on how many different things like organisms, cells, and molecules carry out physical and chemical functions in a living system unlike anatomy which focuses mostly on the structural organization of organisms and their parts. We can keep track with anatomy and physiology by understanding their distinctions and understanding how they apply to the material. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. 1. Anatomy 2. Anatomy 3. Physiology 4. Physiology

Question 4 topic: Organ Systems a) List and describe three systems of the body. Provide a basic function of each and include at least one organ that is part of the system. 1.R espiratory system- helps us breathing the main organ is the lungs2. Muscular system - allowing the body to have movement it consist of cardiac muscle. 3. Digestive system- helps to breakdown food in our stomach an organ is the stomach and large intestine. b) Answer the following exam practice question The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. Question 5 topic: Homeostasis a) Define homeostasis and indicate details you learned that are associated with this behavior. For instance, what types of feedback loops achieve homeostasis? What would happen to molecules, cells, systems and organisms if homeostasis did not occur? Homeostasis is the internal balance despite external change and requires that the body continuously monitor its internal conditions. From body

temperature to blood pressure to levels of certain nutrients, each physiological condition has a particular set point. The control centers in the brain and other parts of the body monitor and react to deviations from homeostasis using negative feedback. Homeostasis also uses positivity feedback to continually increase variables. If homeostasis did not occur all the cells would die because it is a form of cell regulation. b) Answer the following exam practice question The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. Question 6 topic: Levels of organization a) List and describe all levels of organization that are found in a multi-cellular organism. Provide a definition and example of each one. Which levels are considered living, and what are the non-living building blocks of our hierarchy? What level is the smallest unit of life? Atom, this is the most basic part of a chemical element and it has a centralized nucleus with negatively charged electrons around it. An example would be sodium. An atom is considered non-living Molecule, this is a group of atoms bonded together. An example would be a phospholipid. A molecule is considered non-living.

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Organelles, this is a subcellular structure that has a specific job to help a cell perform its function. Example is a ribosome. An organelles is considered living. Cells, a cell is a basic unit of life that is in charge of the makeup of all living things. An example would be a eukaryote. A cell is considered living. Tissue, these are multiple cells that work together to help perform a specific function. An example would be connective tissue. A tissue is considered living. Organs, these are groups of tissues that work together to perform a specialized function to help the body. An example would be a heart. An organ is considered living. Organ System is a group of organs that work together to perform a specific function for the body. An example of this would be the digestive system. An organ system is considered living. Organisms, this is the presence of a life form using all of the atoms, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. An example of this would be an animal. An organism is considered living. Populations, this is the specific number of organisms living in an area. An example would be that the population (number of people living) in Tucson is 543,242. A population is considered living. Communities, this is the specific group of organisms living in the same place or area. An example of this would be the people living in Tucson. Communities are considered living. Ecosystem, this is many different communities of organisms interacting in the environment. An example of this would be the ocean, we can see many different plants and animals interacting with one another. An ecosystem is considered living. Biosphere, this is a collection of all of the ecosystems interacting. An example of this would be earth. The biosphere is considered living b) Answer the following exam practice question The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer though the image.

Question 7 topic: Body Regions

a) Define anatomical position and pick two body regions. Describe each one in detail including its common name, where it is located in relation to other areas and an anatomical plane that would section this region. Heavily utilize ‘Intro to A&P vocab’ in your response like directional terms and sectional planes. Anatomical position refers to the standardized position used as a reference point in anatomy, where the body is standing upright, facing forward, arms at the sides, and palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from the body. This position allows for consistent descriptions of body structures regardless of individual variations or orientations. 1. Antecubital Region: - Common Name: Antecubital Fossa - Location in Relation to Other Areas: The antecubital region is located anterior to the elbow joint and posterior to the forearm. It is proximal to the wrist and distal to the shoulder. - Anatomical Plane: A sagittal plane can section this region into medial and lateral portions. This plane is useful for understanding the structures within the antecubital fossa, such as blood vessels and nerves. 2. Cervical Region: - Common Name: Neck - Location in Relation to Other Areas: The cervical region is located superior to the thoracic region and inferior to the cranial region. It is anterior to the dorsal region and posterior to the ventral region. - Anatomical Plane: A transverse plane can section this region horizontally, dividing it into superior and inferior portions. This plane is essential for examining the structures within the neck, including the cervical vertebrae, trachea, esophagus, and major blood vessels. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer though the image.

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Question 8 topic: Body membranes a) List and describe three body membranes. Provide a basic function of each and include at least one organ or system that is associated with each membrane. Define and compare/contrast visceral and parietal linings. 1. Mucous Membranes: - Function: Mucous membranes line the cavities and tubes that open to the exterior of the body, such as the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts. They secrete mucus to lubricate and protect the underlying tissues, as well as to trap and remove foreign particles and pathogens. - Example: The respiratory system is associated with mucous membranes lining the nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, where mucus helps humidify the air and trap dust and microorganisms. 2. Serous Membranes: - Function: Serous membranes line the body cavities that do not open to the exterior (pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities) and cover the organs within these cavities. They secrete serous fluid, which acts as a lubricant to reduce friction between the opposing surfaces of organs and body cavities during movement.

- Example: The pericardium, a serous membrane, surrounds the heart and secretes pericardial fluid to reduce friction as the heart beats within the pericardial cavity. 3. Synovial Membranes: - Function: Synovial membranes line the joint cavities of freely movable (synovial) joints and secrete synovial fluid. Synovial fluid lubricates the joint surfaces, nourishes the articular cartilage, and reduces friction during movement. - Example: The knee joint is associated with synovial membranes, which line the joint cavity between the femur and tibia and secrete synovial fluid to facilitate smooth movement and absorb shock. Visceral and parietal linings: - Visceral lining refers to the inner layer of a serous membrane that directly covers an organ. For example, the visceral pericardium covers the surface of the heart. - Parietal lining refers to the outer layer of a serous membrane that lines the body cavity. For example, the parietal pericardium lines the pericardial cavity. The parietal lining and visceral lining are continuous with each other, forming a closed sac around the organ, and they secrete serous fluid between them to reduce friction during organ movement. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image.

Question 9 topic: Integumentary anatomy a) Pick three specific skin structures from Assignment 2, and describe each one in detail including where it is located, what it does and any other special features about it. Epidermis: ( Epi-upon or over) The Epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin and is made up of five strata ( Stratum basalt, granulosum, lucid, corneum). The functions of this layer is to protect your the skin from harm such as UV radiation, bacteria, etc. Dermis: (Derma- skin) The Dermis is located between the epidermis and hypodermis. At which, it protects your body by producing sweat and hair. As sweat acts like an antibiotic fighting any infections and regulates the body's temperature. Hypodermis: located at the bottom layer beneath the dermis. Functions include connecting the skin to bones and muscles. It also insulates your body and stores energy. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. Dermal Papilla - located at the end of hair follicles it provides generation of the hair shaft, growth and cycling.

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Question 10 topic: Integumentary system functions a) List and describe three functions of the integumentary system. Provide a detailed example of each one. 1.) Synovial membrane is a connective tissue membrane that lines the cavity of freely movable joints such as the shoulder, elbow and knee. Synoviocytes releases hyaluronic acid into the joint cavity, this acid traps water which forms into synovial fluid which is a natural lubricant that allows the joint to move freely. 2.) Mucous membrane is made up of connective and epithelial tissue. This membrane lines the body cavities and passageways that open up to the outside environment. These outside enviroments include the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive tracts. 3.) Serous membrane is made up of mesothelium. This membrane covers up organs that are not exposed to the outside. Serous fluid which is secreted by cell lubricates the membrane and prevents abrasions and friction between organs. There are 3 serous membranes that line the thoracic cavity, 2 pleura that line the lungs and the pericardium that lines the heart. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page)

The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. Question 11 topic: Tissues of the skin a) Considering the two general layers of the skin, list the layer and specific tissue found in each. 1) Epidermis- Epithelial Tissue 2)Dermis- Connective Tissue b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer though the image.

Question 12 topic: Epidermis a) Describe the epidermis including specific layers, cells and structures in this general layer. The epidermis is made up of five layers that are mostly stratified, squamous, keratinized epithelial tissue. The stratum corneum, the stratum lucidem (in thick skin, such as the skin on the palms), stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. Both the stratum corneum and stratum lucidem have only dead, densely packed with keratin, keratinocytes. These layers help protect the more sensitive layers beneath. These keratinocytes come from single layer of basal cells, stem cells, that make up the stratum basale along with melanocytes and tactile cells. Melanocytes are what create melanin, which is what gives skin its color. Melanin is important as it protects the skin from UV damage and helps prevent the breakdown of folic acid. Tactile cells are not the most sensitive, but they allow the body to process the feeling, touch. The epidermal water barrier is between the stratum granulosum and the stratum spinosum. It helps prevent water movement both in and out of the epidermis. However, there

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are no blood vessels to carry nutrients to the cells above the EWB, so cells above die quickly. Despite this the stratum granulosum still has active cells. These active cells primarily produce proteins to thicken the cell walls. The stratum spinosum has dendritic cells that act as macrophages and “eat” foreign particles, damaged cells, and other potentially harmful things. The stratum spinosum also contains desmosomes that help the cells stay attached to each other. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. to select your answer, you can either type what your answer is below the image or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. Or you can use a text box. Question 13 topic: Epidermal water barrier

a) Describe specific events that underlie the formation of the EWB. Include strata, cells and molecules that contribute to the barrier. The formation of the epidermal water barrier (EWB), also known as the stratum corneum, involves specific events and components that contribute to its structure and function: 1. Keratinocyte differentiation: - Keratinocytes, the predominant cells in the epidermis, undergo differentiation as they move from the basal layer towards the skin surface. - Differentiation involves changes in cell morphology, gene expression, and protein synthesis, leading to the formation of distinct layers within the epidermis. 2. Stratum basale (basal layer): - The basal layer is the deepest layer of the epidermis, where keratinocyte proliferation (mitosis) occurs. - Basal keratinocytes attach to the basement membrane and give rise to daughter cells that migrate upwards towards the skin surface. 3. Stratum spinosum (spinous layer): - Basal keratinocytes move upwards into the spinous layer, where they continue to proliferate and differentiate. - Cells in the spinous layer become interconnected by desmosomes, specialized cell junctions that provide mechanical strength and integrity to the epidermis. 4. Stratum granulosum (granular layer): - Keratinocytes in the granular layer undergo further differentiation, characterized by the accumulation of granules containing lipids and proteins. - Lipid-filled lamellar bodies are secreted by keratinocytes and play a crucial role in forming the lipid barrier of the stratum corneum. 5. Stratum lucidum (clear layer) (only present in thick skin): - The clear layer is a translucent layer found between the granular layer and the stratum corneum in thick skin regions such as the palms and soles.

- It consists of flattened, densely packed keratinocytes containing eleidin, a clear protein derived from keratohyalin granules. 6. Stratum corneum (horny layer): - The stratum corneum is the outermost layer of the epidermis, consisting of multiple layers of flattened, dead keratinocytes (corneocytes) embedded in a lipid matrix. - Corneocytes are surrounded by a cornified envelope, a structure composed of cross-linked proteins that provide mechanical strength and barrier function. - Intercellular lipids, including ceramides, cholesterol, and free fatty acids, form a lipid bilayer surrounding corneocytes, creating a waterproof barrier that prevents water loss and protects against external insults. Overall, the formation of the epidermal water barrier involves the differentiation and maturation of keratinocytes, the secretion of lipids and proteins, and the assembly of specialized structures and molecules that contribute to the integrity and function of the stratum corneum. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image.

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Question 14 topic: Dermis a) Describe the dermis including specific layers, tissues and structures in this general layer. The dermis is the middle layer of the skin located beneath the epidermis. It is primarily composed of connective tissue and contains various structures that provide support, nourishment, and sensation to the skin. The dermis can be divided into two main layers: 1. Papillary dermis: - The papillary dermis is the superficial layer of the dermis, adjacent to the epidermis. - It consists of loose connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers, as well as blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve endings. - Structures found in the papillary dermis include dermal papillae, which extend into the epidermis and contain capillary loops and tactile (Meissner's) corpuscles responsible for tactile sensation. 2. Reticular dermis: - The reticular dermis is the deeper and thicker layer of the dermis, located beneath the papillary dermis.

- It is composed of dense irregular connective tissue containing bundles of collagen and elastic fibers, fibroblasts, blood vessels, and nerves. - Structures found in the reticular dermis include hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, nerves, and blood vessels. - Collagen fibers in the reticular dermis provide strength and support to the skin, while elastic fibers provide elasticity and resilience. - Specialized sensory receptors such as Pacinian corpuscles (pressure receptors) and free nerve endings (pain receptors) are also present in the reticular dermis. Overall, the dermis plays a crucial role in supporting the epidermis, providing blood supply and nutrients to the skin, regulating temperature, and facilitating sensation. Its diverse structures and tissues contribute to the overall function and integrity of the skin. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image.

Question 15 topic: Cutaneous glands a) Compare/contrast three glands of the skin. Share three ways they are similar and three differences between the structures. Found in lesson 2C and also, The Integementary System crash course, names three cutaneous glands. They are sebaceous glands, apocrine sweat glands, and eccrine sweat glands. They are all considered exocrine glands, meaning they secrete a substance through ducts to the surface of the skin.Each of these glands are considered accessory structures to the integumentary system, and they each are found all over the body. They are different in the substance that each of them secrete. They are concentrated in different areas of the body, and they serve different functions, such as preventing dryness, or dispersing heat b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. Question 16 topic: Integumentary dysfunction a) List and describe three examples of integumentary system dysfunction. Include details in your response like the region that is

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impacted, physical features of the disorder/disease, any treatments or preventative methods available, etc. 1. Acne: - Region: Primarily affects the face, neck, chest, and back. - Physical features: Characterized by the presence of pimples, blackheads, whiteheads, and inflammation of the skin. - Treatments/preventative methods: Treatment options include topical medications (e.g., benzoyl peroxide, retinoids), oral medications (e.g., antibiotics, isotretinoin), and lifestyle modifications (e.g., gentle cleansing, avoiding triggers like oily cosmetics). 2. Eczema (Atopic Dermatitis): - Region: Can affect various parts of the body, commonly seen on flexural areas (e.g., elbows, knees), face, neck, and hands. - Physical features: Presents as red, itchy, dry, and inflamed patches of skin, often accompanied by blisters, scaling, and oozing. - Treatments/preventative methods: Treatment includes moisturizers, topical corticosteroids, antihistamines, and avoiding triggers like irritants, allergens, and stress. 3. Psoriasis: - Region: Often affects the scalp, elbows, knees, lower back, and nails. - Physical features: Manifests as thickened, red, scaly patches of skin (plaques), which may be itchy, painful, or bleed. - Treatments/preventative methods: Treatment options include topical medications (e.g., corticosteroids, vitamin D analogs), phototherapy, oral medications (e.g., methotrexate, cyclosporine), biologic agents, and lifestyle modifications (e.g., avoiding triggers like stress, smoking). b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image.

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Question 17 topic: Skeletal system functions a) List and describe three functions of the skeletal system. Provide a detailed example of each one and indicate if it is a mechanical or homeostatic action. Three major functions of the skeletal system include blood cell production (hematopoiesis), gross functions like movement, and act as a reservoir for minerals like phosphate. Hematopoiesis and mineral storage are homeostatic actions as it keeps the body’s levels of minerals in check. Movement is a mechanical action such as walking or running. b) Answer the following exam practice question The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image.

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Question 18 topic: Shapes of bones a) What are four categories of bone shapes? Include a function and example of each. 1. Long bones - Function: Support weight and facilitate movement. - Example: Femur in the thigh. 2. Short bones - Function: Provide stability and support. - Example: Carpals in the wrist. 3. Flat bones - Function: Protect internal organs and provide large areas for muscle attachment. - Example: Scapula in the shoulder. 4. Irregular bones - Function: Perform various roles, such as protection and muscle attachment. - Example: Vertebrae in the spine. b) Answer the following exam practice question

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The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. Question 19 topic: Bone composition a) Describe the living and non-living parts of bone. For the non-living region, share the two components, their dominant substances and general functions. For the living units, share the basic functions of each and details about the ‘family’ from which they differentiated. What embryonic connective tissue is critical for all these bone parts? Non-living part of bone: - Components: Organic matrix (mostly collagen) and inorganic matrix (mostly hydroxyapatite). - Dominant substances: Collagen and hydroxyapatite. - General functions: Provide structural support, strength, and hardness to the bone. Living units of bone: - Osteoblasts: Responsible for bone formation (osteogenesis) by secreting organic matrix and initiating mineralization. - Osteocytes: Maintain bone tissue by regulating mineral concentration and responding to mechanical stress.

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- Osteoclasts: Responsible for bone resorption, breaking down bone tissue for remodeling and calcium homeostasis. These bone cells differentiate from mesenchymal stem cells, a type of embryonic connective tissue critical for bone development. b) Answer the following exam practice question The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. Question 20 topic: Bone tissues a) Compare/contrast spongy bone and compact bone. Share three ways they are similar and three differences between the two tissues. Similarities: 1. Both spongy and compact bone are composed of living cells (osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts) embedded in an extracellular matrix. 2. Both types of bone tissue contain mineralized collagen fibers, primarily hydroxyapatite, which provide strength and support. 3. Both spongy and compact bone contribute to the overall structure and integrity of the skeletal system.

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Differences: 1. Structure: - Spongy bone has a porous, lattice-like structure with trabeculae, while compact bone is dense and solid with Haversian systems (osteons). 2. Location: - Spongy bone is typically found at the ends of long bones, within short, flat, and irregular bones, and in the epiphyses of long bones. Compact bone forms the outer layer of all bones and the shafts of long bones (diaphysis). 3. Function: - Spongy bone provides support and facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste within bone tissue. It also reduces the overall weight of the bone. Compact bone provides strength, support, and protection to the bone, resisting bending and compression forces. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. to select your answer, you can either type what your answer is below the image or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. OR use a text box.

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Question 21 topic: Skeletal anatomy a) Pick three specific bone structures from Assignment 4, and describe each one in detail including where it is located in relation to other areas and another bone structure to which it articulates. Heavily utilize ‘Intro to A&P vocab’ in your response like body regions and directional terms. 1. **Clavicle (Collarbone):** - Location: The clavicle is a long bone located horizontally across the anterior aspect of the thorax, connecting the sternum (specifically the manubrium) to the acromion process of the scapula. - Articulation: The clavicle articulates with the sternum at the sternoclavicular joint medially and with the acromion process of the scapula at the acromioclavicular joint laterally.

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- Intro to A&P vocab: The clavicle is part of the appendicular skeleton, specifically the pectoral girdle, and it helps to connect the upper limb to the axial skeleton. 2. **Patella (Kneecap):** - Location: The patella is a sesamoid bone located in the anterior portion of the knee joint, within the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle. - Articulation: The patella articulates with the distal femur within the patellofemoral joint. - Intro to A&P vocab: The patella is part of the appendicular skeleton and plays a crucial role in increasing the leverage of the quadriceps tendon, thereby enhancing the extension of the knee joint. 3. **Tibia (Shinbone):** - Location: The tibia is the larger and stronger of the two lower leg bones, located medially and anteriorly relative to the fibula. It extends from the knee joint to the ankle joint. - Articulation: The tibia articulates proximally with the femur at the knee joint and distally with the talus bone of the foot at the ankle joint. - Intro to A&P vocab: The tibia is part of the appendicular skeleton and is weight-bearing, playing a crucial role in supporting body weight during standing, walking, and running. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer.

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Question 22 topic: Skeletal dysfunction a) List and describe three examples of skeletal system dysfunction. Include details in your response like the region that is impacted, physical features of the disorder/disease, any treatments or preventative methods available, etc. 1. Osteoporosis: - Impact: Osteoporosis affects the density and quality of bones, leading to weakened bone strength and an increased risk of fractures.

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- Physical features: Individuals with osteoporosis may experience loss of height, stooped posture (kyphosis), and bone pain. Fractures, especially in the hip, spine, and wrist, are common. - Treatments/preventative methods: Treatment typically involves medications to slow bone loss and promote bone formation, along with lifestyle changes such as adequate calcium and vitamin D intake, regular weight-bearing exercise, and fall prevention strategies. 2. Osteoarthritis: - Impact: Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease characterized by the breakdown of cartilage in the joints, leading to pain, stiffness, and reduced range of motion. - Physical features: Affected joints, commonly the knees, hips, spine, and hands, may show swelling, tenderness, and crepitus (grating sensation). Bone spurs (osteophytes) may form around the affected joints. - Treatments/preventative methods: Treatment focuses on pain management, improving joint function, and slowing disease progression. This may include medications, physical therapy, weight management, joint injections, and in severe cases, joint replacement surgery. Preventative measures include maintaining a healthy weight, exercising regularly, protecting joints from injury, and managing joint stress. 3. Scoliosis: - Impact: Scoliosis is a condition characterized by an abnormal sideways curvature of the spine, which can lead to uneven shoulders, waist asymmetry, and in severe cases, respiratory and cardiovascular complications. - Physical features: Depending on the severity, scoliosis may cause visible spinal curvature, uneven shoulders or hips, and in some cases, back pain, muscle imbalances, or neurological symptoms. - Treatments/preventative methods: Treatment options depend on the severity of the curvature and may include observation, bracing, physical therapy, or surgery to correct the spinal deformity. Early detection through regular screening, especially during adolescence, can help in implementing conservative treatments and preventing progression. Exercises to improve core strength and posture may also be beneficial in preventing worsening of the condition.

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b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. to select your answer, you can either type what your answer is below the image or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. Or use a text box. Question 23 topic: Intramembranous ossification (IO) a) Describe specific events that underlie intramembranous ossification. Include cells and structures that are critical for this process. Intramembranous ossification is the process by which flat bones, such as those in the skull, mandible, and clavicles, are formed. Unlike endochondral ossification, which involves the replacement of a cartilage model with bone tissue, intramembranous ossification occurs within mesenchymal connective tissue membranes. Several specific events characterize intramembranous ossification: 1. Condensation of mesenchymal cells: - Mesenchymal cells aggregate and condense within the embryonic connective tissue membrane at the site of bone formation. 2. Differentiation into osteoprogenitor cells: - Some mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoprogenitor cells, which are precursor cells committed to becoming osteoblasts.

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3. Formation of ossification centers: - Osteoprogenitor cells further differentiate into osteoblasts within localized regions of the mesenchymal membrane, forming ossification centers. 4. Deposition of osteoid: - Osteoblasts secrete osteoid, an organic matrix composed primarily of collagen fibers, onto the surfaces of the connective tissue membrane within the ossification centers. 5. Mineralization of osteoid: - Calcium and phosphate ions from the surrounding tissue are deposited within the osteoid matrix, leading to its mineralization and the formation of early woven bone. 6. Maturation of bone tissue: - Osteoblasts become trapped within the mineralized matrix and differentiate into osteocytes, forming lacunae within the newly formed bone tissue. - Blood vessels invade the developing bone tissue, providing nutrients and oxygen and allowing for further bone maturation. 7. Remodeling and compact bone formation: - The woven bone undergoes remodeling, during which some trabeculae are removed by osteoclasts, while others are reinforced and aligned along lines of mechanical stress. - The remodeled bone tissue forms compact bone with lamellar organization, characterized by layers of mineralized matrix arranged parallel to the bone surface. These events collectively lead to the formation of flat bones through intramembranous ossification. The process is tightly regulated by various signaling molecules, hormones, and genetic factors to ensure proper skeletal development and growth. Intramembranous ossification contributes to the formation of the cranial vault, facial bones, and some parts of the clavicles, providing essential support and protection for vital organs.

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b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. Question 24 topic: Endochondral ossification (EO) a) Describe specific events that underlie endochondral ossification. Include cells and structures that are critical for this process. Endochondral ossification is the process by which most bones in the body are formed during embryonic development and continue to grow during childhood and adolescence. It involves the replacement of a hyaline cartilage model with bone tissue. Several specific events occur during endochondral ossification: 1. Formation of the cartilage model: - Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondroblasts, which secrete hyaline cartilage matrix to form a cartilage model of the future bone. - The cartilage model consists of a central region called the diaphysis and expanded regions called epiphyses at both ends. 2. Development of the primary ossification center: - Blood vessels invade the diaphysis, bringing osteogenic cells (osteoblast precursors) and nutrients.

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- Osteogenic cells differentiate into osteoblasts, which deposit bone matrix (osteoid) around the cartilage model, forming a primary ossification center. 3. Formation of the bone collar: - Osteoblasts in the periosteum (connective tissue membrane surrounding the bone) secrete osteoid around the external surface of the diaphysis, forming a collar of compact bone. 4. Cartilage calcification: - Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) in the center of the diaphysis hypertrophy (enlarge) and produce alkaline phosphatase, which initiates mineralization of the cartilage matrix. - Calcium and phosphate ions are deposited within the cartilage matrix, leading to calcification of the cartilage. 5. Primary ossification: - Osteoblasts replace the calcified cartilage matrix with bone tissue by depositing osteoid onto the calcified cartilage framework. - Blood vessels and osteogenic cells penetrate further into the diaphysis, allowing for continuous bone formation. 6. Formation of the secondary ossification centers: - Blood vessels invade the epiphyses, bringing osteogenic cells and nutrients, leading to the formation of secondary ossification centers within the epiphyseal regions. 7. Formation of the epiphyseal plate (growth plate): - The epiphyseal plate consists of layers of hyaline cartilage between the diaphysis and epiphyses. - Chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate undergo proliferation, hypertrophy, and calcification, similar to those in the primary ossification center. - Osteoblasts continue to replace the cartilage with bone tissue from the secondary ossification centers, allowing for longitudinal bone growth. These events collectively contribute to the formation and growth of long bones through endochondral ossification. The process is tightly regulated by various

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signaling molecules, hormones, and genetic factors to ensure proper skeletal development and growth. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. Question 25 topic: IO vs. EO a) Compare/contrast the two forms of ossification. Share three ways they are similar and three differences between the two processes. Similarities between Intramembranous and Endochondral Ossification: 1. Both are processes of bone formation occurring during embryonic development and skeletal growth. 2. Both processes involve the deposition of mineralized matrix, primarily hydroxyapatite, to form bone tissue.

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3. Both processes are essential for the development and growth of the skeletal system. Differences between Intramembranous and Endochondral Ossification: 1. Origin of bone formation: - Intramembranous ossification occurs within mesenchymal connective tissue membranes, where bone directly replaces the embryonic connective tissue. - Endochondral ossification begins with a hyaline cartilage model, which is gradually replaced by bone tissue. 2. Location in the body: - Intramembranous ossification primarily occurs in flat bones, such as the skull bones, mandible, and clavicles. - Endochondral ossification occurs in long bones, short bones, and irregular bones throughout the body. 3. Sequence of events: - In intramembranous ossification, mesenchymal cells differentiate directly into osteoblasts, which deposit bone matrix to form woven bone. The woven bone is then remodeled into lamellar bone. - In endochondral ossification, the process begins with the formation of a hyaline cartilage model. Osteoblasts differentiate from surrounding mesenchyme and deposit bone matrix around the cartilage model. The cartilage is gradually replaced by bone tissue, starting from the primary ossification center in the diaphysis and extending to the epiphyses. These differences reflect the distinct embryonic origins and mechanisms of bone formation in each process, as well as the specific skeletal structures they contribute to during development and growth. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. to select your answer, you can either type what your answer is below the image or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. Or use a text box.

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Question 26 topic: Bone remodeling a) Define bone remodeling and share the two events that underlie the process. What bone cells are involved in remodeling? How does remodeling impact blood calcium levels? Bone remodeling is the continuous process of resorption (removal) and formation of bone tissue within the skeletal system. It involves the coordinated activity of osteoclasts, which resorb bone tissue, and osteoblasts, which form new bone tissue. The two events that underlie the process of bone remodeling are:

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1. Bone resorption: Osteoclasts attach to bone surfaces and secrete enzymes, including collagenase and acid, to break down bone tissue, releasing minerals such as calcium and phosphate into the bloodstream. 2. Bone formation: Osteoblasts then migrate to the resorbed bone surface and deposit new bone matrix, primarily composed of collagen and minerals, to replace the resorbed bone tissue. The bone cells involved in remodeling are osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Osteoclasts are responsible for bone resorption, while osteoblasts are responsible for bone formation. Remodeling impacts blood calcium levels by influencing the balance between bone resorption and formation. During bone resorption, calcium and other minerals are released into the bloodstream, increasing blood calcium levels. Conversely, during bone formation, calcium is removed from the bloodstream and incorporated into newly formed bone tissue, decreasing blood calcium levels. This dynamic process helps maintain calcium homeostasis in the bloodstream, ensuring normal physiological functions such as muscle contraction, nerve transmission, and blood clotting. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image.

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Question 27 topic: Calcium homeostasis a) List and describe the three main hormones that underlie calcium homeostasis. In your response, share the conditions that stimulate its release, the cells/organs that produce it, the specific influence it has on cells/organs, the overall impact it has on blood calcium levels, etc. 1. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): - Stimulus for release: Hypocalcemia (low blood calcium levels) and hyperphosphatemia (high blood phosphate levels) stimulate the release of PTH. - Producer: Produced by the parathyroid glands, located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. - Influence: PTH acts on bones, kidneys, and the intestine. - Bones: Stimulates osteoclast activity, leading to bone resorption and release of calcium into the bloodstream. - Kidneys: Increases renal tubular reabsorption of calcium, decreases phosphate reabsorption, and stimulates the production of calcitriol (active form of vitamin D), which enhances intestinal calcium absorption. - Intestine: Indirectly increases calcium absorption by promoting calcitriol production, which in turn enhances calcium absorption from the intestine.

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- Overall impact: Increases blood calcium levels by promoting calcium release from bones, reabsorption in the kidneys, and absorption in the intestines. 2. Calcitonin: - Stimulus for release: Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels) stimulates the release of calcitonin. - Producer: Produced by the parafollicular cells (C cells) of the thyroid gland. - Influence: Calcitonin primarily acts on bones. - Bones: Inhibits osteoclast activity and stimulates osteoblast activity, leading to calcium deposition and bone formation. - Overall impact: Decreases blood calcium levels by promoting calcium deposition in bones, inhibiting bone resorption. 3. Calcitriol (Active Vitamin D): - Stimulus for production: Calcitriol production is stimulated by PTH and low blood calcium levels. - Producer: Synthesized in the kidneys from its precursor molecule, calcidiol, which is produced in the liver from vitamin D obtained through dietary sources or synthesized in the skin upon exposure to sunlight. - Influence: Calcitriol primarily acts on the intestines. - Intestine: Increases calcium and phosphate absorption by enhancing the expression of calcium-binding proteins and phosphate transporters in the intestinal epithelial cells. - Overall impact: Increases blood calcium levels by enhancing intestinal calcium absorption, which indirectly influences phosphate absorption as well. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image.

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Question 28 topic: Calcium disruptions a) What are the terms for high and low blood calcium levels. What are the causes and impacts of these states? Other than bone formation, what are three uses of calcium in the body, and why must calcium homeostasis occur for normal systemic function? - High blood calcium levels are termed hypercalcemia, while low blood calcium levels are termed hypocalcemia. - Causes and impacts: - Hypercalcemia can be caused by conditions such as hyperparathyroidism, certain cancers, prolonged immobilization, or excessive intake of calcium supplements. It can lead to symptoms like muscle weakness, fatigue, confusion, constipation, and in severe cases, kidney stones or cardiac arrhythmias. - Hypocalcemia may result from hypoparathyroidism, vitamin D deficiency, renal failure, or inadequate dietary intake of calcium. It can cause symptoms such as

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muscle cramps, twitching, numbness or tingling in extremities, seizures, and in severe cases, cardiac arrest. - Other uses of calcium in the body: 1. Muscle contraction: Calcium ions play a crucial role in initiating muscle contraction by binding to troponin, thereby allowing myosin heads to bind to actin filaments and generate force. 2. Nerve impulse transmission: Calcium ions are involved in the release of neurotransmitters at synapses, facilitating the transmission of nerve impulses across neurons. 3. Blood clotting: Calcium ions are essential for the activation of various clotting factors in the coagulation cascade, leading to the formation of blood clots to stop bleeding. - Calcium homeostasis must occur for normal systemic function because calcium is involved in numerous physiological processes essential for life, including muscle contraction, nerve transmission, blood clotting, and bone mineralization. Imbalances in blood calcium levels can disrupt these vital functions, leading to various health problems or even life-threatening complications. Therefore, maintaining the appropriate balance of calcium in the bloodstream is crucial for overall health and well-being. b) Answer the following exam practice question (next page) The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image.

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Question 29 topic: Phosphate homeostasis a) Other than bone formation, what are three uses of phosphate in the body? What hormones impact phosphate homeostasis, and how do they influence blood phosphate levels? Three uses of phosphate in the body: 1. Energy storage and transfer: Phosphate groups are essential components of molecules like adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate, which serve as energy carriers in cellular metabolism and muscle contraction. 2. Structural component of nucleic acids: Phosphate groups are integral parts of nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA, contributing to the backbone structure of these molecules. 3. Buffering system: Phosphate ions play a role in maintaining the body's acid- base balance, acting as a buffer in bodily fluids to regulate pH levels. Hormones that impact phosphate homeostasis: 1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH): PTH is released by the parathyroid glands in response to low blood calcium levels. It acts to increase blood calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption, enhancing calcium reabsorption in the kidneys, and indirectly increasing intestinal absorption of calcium. PTH also promotes phosphate excretion by the kidneys, thereby decreasing blood phosphate levels. 2. Calcitriol (active form of vitamin D): Calcitriol is synthesized in the kidneys in response to PTH and low blood calcium levels. It enhances intestinal absorption of both calcium and phosphate, helping to maintain appropriate levels of these minerals in the bloodstream. 3. Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23): FGF23 is primarily produced by osteocytes in bone and plays a crucial role in phosphate homeostasis. It inhibits renal phosphate reabsorption and suppresses calcitriol synthesis, thereby promoting phosphate excretion and reducing intestinal phosphate absorption. FGF23 secretion is stimulated by elevated blood phosphate levels and calcitriol. b) Answer the following exam practice question

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The question below is an image. There are many ways you select an answer. You can either type what your answer is below the image, type your answer in a text box, or select the “draw” option at the top of your screen to circle your answer. You must also explain your answer below the image. ------------ (EXTRA Practice)--------------- • Here’s a PlayPosit video for your review • If your browser blocked the video, use the following link: https://www.playposit.com/listcode/947031/gj787966/open/anonymous ----------------------

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• Complete the interactive online activity below for review. • If your browser cuts off the activity, use the following link: https://h5p.org/node/432864 • OR… you can print this and write the words into the blanks here (but you won’t be able to check your answers)

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Unit I study guide

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