Unit 2 Astro (1)

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Pennsylvania State University *

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Astronomy

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Oct 30, 2023

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KEPLER’S LAWS Heliocentric Model - Sun treated as center of universe - Replaced the geocentric model - Advocated earth as the center of universe The planet revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit - No center First Law - Planets orbit around the sun not in circular orbits, but along orbits that are elliptical in shape, with the sun at one of the foci of the ellipse - Goes faster when close to the sun 2nd Law - Perihelion - The point in its orbit where the planet is closest to the sun - Planet is the fastest - Aphelion - The point in orbit where it’s farthest away from the sun - Planet is the slowest 3rd Law - Unifying factors between the motions of planets along various orbits - Orbital period =P(in earth days) - Average distance of planet from the sun -semimajor axis =a(in km) - P^2=a^3 Quiz Questions - What was Kepler's first law? - Planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus of the ellipse - What best describes the orbit of earth around the sun? - An ellipse that is close to being circular - Which of the following does Kepler’s Second Law support? - When a planet is closer to the sun, it’s speed is greater than when it is farther away - How did Kepler himself originally state this second law? - A line joining a planet and the sun sweepers out equal areas in equal intervals of time - What was Kepler’s Third Law?

- The square of the time period for an orbit of a planet is proportional to its average distance from the sun (in other words P^2 is proportional to a^3) - Saturn is about 10 times as far from the sun as Earth (a=10au). About how many times does the Earth orbit the Sun in the time it takes Saturn to orbit just once? - About 30 JUPITER’S MOON 4 moons - The dots changes position - Some of the moon move quickly than the others - “Galilean Satellites” - Io,Europa,Ganymede, Callisto Galileo and his findings - Controversial - Indicated earth is not the center of universe - Conﬂict of catholic church teachings Io - The strong gravity squeezes it and heats interior - A lot of volcanoes - p=1.8 a=433,000 Europa - Icy surface - Cracks and fractures caused by the icy layer that moves across ocean - P=3.6, a=697,000 Ganymede - Largest moon in the solar system - p=7.1 a=1,093,000 Callisto - Static ball of ice - P=16.7, A=1,923,000 Quiz Questions

- Besides the discovery that moons orbit Jupiter, what other discovery made by Galileo Galilei, with an early telescope, proved the earth is not at the center of the universe? - The phases of venus - Of the four Galilean moons, which is closest to jupiter? - Io - Which moon of Jupiter is believed to have a liquid ocean beneath a layer of ice? - Europa - Which moon of Jupiter is the largest? - Ganymede INNER SOLAR SYSTEM Density - mass/volume Mercury - Closest to the sun - Ranges from -290 to 800 degrees fahrenheit - No atmosphere to retain heat - daytime=hot, nighttime=cold - Much like earth's moon (slightly bigger) - Smallest in solar system - Rough surface - Fastest planet in solar system - 88 days = 1 year - But one day is 176 times as long as a day on earth - Rotates slow - No atmosphere (thin) - Can’t breathe there - Sunlight isn’t scattered to make a blue sky - Has no moons Venus - The hottest planet - Dense atmosphere - Carbon dioxide

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- Very extreme - 880 degrees fahrenheit - Hot, cloud earth twin - Rocky, metallic surface like mercury - Volcanoes are continuously active - 85% covered with volcanic rock - Second brightest object after moon - One day=243 earth days - One year=225 earth days - Very slight tilt - No seasons - Closest to Earth Domes - Pancake domes - Flat tops and steep sides,formed by lava - Tick Domes - Odd volcanoes radiating spurs that make them look like their blood feeding namesake - Tesserae - Terrain with intricate patterns of ridges and grooves that suggest the scorching temp makes rock behave in some ways more like peanut butter beneath a thin and strong chocolate layer Quiz Questions - Which of the following statements can be said about venus - Venus has a very slow speed of rotation and venus is closer to the sun than earth is - Which among the following scenarios will be true for someone watching the sky from the venus surface? - The sun would rise in the west and set in the east - Craters on Venus - Are much larger in size than those on Earth, Moon, and Mars - Volcanoes on Venus - Produce very large lava ﬂows that cover at least 85% of the planets surface Earth - 5th largest planet in solar system - day=23.9 hours, year=365.25 days

- Takes 8 mins for sunlight to reach planet - Tilted 23.4 degrees - 4 main layers - Inner core at center - Outer core - Mantle - Crust Quiz Questions - Where do mountains on earth come from - In some locations, plates of rock on the planet’s surface press together and the plates rise together - From what was described, where are aurorae likely to be seen most frequently - At locations near the poles - What is not true about earth's atmosphere - It has more carbon dioxide than venus, so is heated more than venus by the Greenhouse e±ect - What is ozone? - Three oxygen atoms bonded together into a single molecule - What would happen if the ozone layer were completely destroyed? - Ultraviolet radiation from the sun would get through the atmosphere and cause damage to life Greenhouse E±ect - A natural process which made life on Earth possible - Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide-greenhouse gasses The Moon - Brightest and largest object in night sky - Has a core, mantle, and crust Light Areas - Highlands Dark Areas - Maria (seas) - Craters filled with lava 1-4 bil years ago Mars - Dry, rocky, and cold - Half the size of earth

- One day=24.6 hours, one year=687 days - Tilted 25 degrees - Phobos and deimos are the two small moons - Dense core made of iron, nickel, and sulfur - Valles marineris - Large canon system that is long enough to stretch from CA to NY - Home to the largest volcano-olympus mons - Thin atmosphere - Polar ice caps that change with the seasons - Iron oxide gives it its rusty color Quiz Questions - Why is venus day so long - Its rotation is very long compared to the time it takes to go once around the sun - The greenhouse e±ect - Larger on venus than on Earth - Which two Terrestrial planets have the least amount of atmosphere - Mercury and mars - The densities of the four terrestrial planets are similar to each other. This means - They are made of similar substances COMETS - Frozen leftovers from the formation of the solar system composed of dust, rock, and ice - As gets closer to the sun it heats up and spews gasses and dust Quiz Questions - Which of the following is a truthful description of the physical appearance of a comet - Comets develop a tail only when they get closer to the sun in their orbit - Which is true about the Halley’s comet - It is a short period comet that was seen in 2061 - What is the size of the head of a comet and what is it made of - About the size of a city and is made of frozen gasses, rock and dust

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- From what you just saw and heard, which of the following is an accurate description of the KT event - Living forms, notably the dominant ones such as the dinosaurs, were driven to extinction by the aftermath if the impact more than the impact itself METEORS AND ASTEROIDS Asteroids - Rocky, airless remnants - Elliptical orbit C-Type - Chondrite - Most common - Consist of clay and silicate rocks - Dark in appearance S-type - Stony - Made up of silicate materials and iron M-Types - Metallic - Composition is related on how far it is from sun Classifications - Main Asteroid Belt - Between mars and jupiter-most common - Not elongated orbits - Trojans - Share orbit with larger planet but don't collide - Usually ﬂies out of orbit - Near Earth Asteroids - Earth-crossers Quiz Questions - Asteroids are: - Found in high concentration in an asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter

- Solid, rocky, or metallic, and they have craters Meteors Meteoroids - Space rocks - Objects in space that range from dust grains to small asteroids Meteors - When meteoroids enter earth's atmosphere at high speed and burn up, the fireballs or shooting stars are called this Meteorites - When the meteor survives a trip through the atmosphere and hits the ground Quiz Questions - What is the meteorite - A meteor that passes through Earth's atmosphere and survives to hit the Earth - What is the size of a meteor - Most are between the size of a small grain and a large boulder - Most meteorites come from - Asteroids Random Quiz Questions - A meteor shower can occur when - Earth's orbit crosses a trail of debris left behind from a comet - Most meteors - Are very small (centimeter scale) pieces of rock burning in the Earth’s atmosphere - A comet's nucleus is composed of - Dust, dry ice, and water ice - The material in a meteorite is - Roughly as old as the solar system OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM Ceres - Largest object in the asteroid belt between mars and jupiter

- Vesta is the second most massive asteroid - Only dwarf planet in the inner solar system Jupiter - Huge, stormy gas giant - Largest in solar system - Fifth planet from sun - Stripes and swirls are cold windy clouds of ammonia and water - Winds of hundreds of miles per hour - 95 moons - If it was the size of a basketball, earth would be the size of a marble - Can fit over 1000 size marbles earths into a basketball size jupiter - Has an overall density of milk - Primarily composed of hydrogen and helium - Great red spot - Storm that has lasted for 300 years - 1 day=10 hours long - 1 year=12 earth years - Magnetic field - The liquid metallic hydrogen conducts electricity well - 3 times as massive as saturn but only slightly larger - Adding mass increases gravity and compresses gasses Jupiter's Moons - Io - Third largest of jupiter's moons - Bit larger than our moon - Irregularly elliptical orbit - Tidal forces - Crazy amount of heat - Crust in Liquid form - Sulfur volcanoes - Thin atmosphere - Sulfur dioxide - No life because of constant volcanism and intense radiation - Europa - Icy surface - Radiation from jupiter-no life, but could be under surface

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- If tidal heating warms up interior, could be liquid water ocean underneath - 90% same size our moon - Orbits jupiter every 3.5 days - Iron core, rocky mantle, ocean of salty water - Ocean lies below a shell of ice - Ganymede - Largest moon in solar system - Ocean has more water than all water on earth - Under thick crust of ice - Only moon to have its own magnetic field - Causes auroras - Ribbons of glowing, hot, electrified gas, in regions circling the south and north poles of the moon - Thin oxygen atmosphere - Cellisto - Has one of the oldest surfaces in the solar system - Third largest moon in the solar system - Jupiter's second largest - Same size as mercury - Icy surface covered with craters - May have a salty ocean beneath its surface - 17 days for one orbit of jupiter - Carbon dioxide exosphere Saturn - 6th planet from sun - Second largest in solar system - 9 times wider than earth - Made from hydrogen and helium - Dozens of moons - 1 day = 10.7 hours - 1 year= 29.4 years - Rings - Made of billions of small chunks of ice and rock coated with other materials such has dust - Extreme pressure and temp - Less dense than water

- Would ﬂoat Saturn's Moons - Iapetus - One bright side one dark side - Enceladus - Ice volcanoes - Titan - Own atmosphere - Thick and nitrogen rich - Only dense atmosphere for moon - Saturn's largest moon - Second largest in solar system - 50% wider than earth's moon - Takes 15 days and 22 hours to complete full orbit around saturn - 5 layers (inner to outer) - Core of rock - Shell of water ice -high pressure ice (iceIV) - Salty liquid water - Outer crust of Water ice - Dense atmosphere - Volcanic activity - Liquid lava water instead of molten rock Uranus - Gas giant - Very cold and windy - Third largest diameter - 13 faint rings - 90 degree tilt - Extreme seasons - Can have 21 years of darkness - Caused by a large collision early in its formations could have tipped it over - Smaller than jupiter and saturn but 4 times wider than earth - 1 day=17 hours - 1 year=84 years - Rotate in opposite direction - East to west

- Ice giants - Is blue/green from methane in atmosphere - Mostly hydrogen and helium - Gaseous on the outside and has an extended ﬂuid within consistent of water, methane, and ammonia surrounding a small rocky core - Magnetic field is tilted Uranus Moons - Miranda - Has coronae - Lightly cratered collections of ridges and valleys, separated from the more heavily cratered and terrain by sharp boundaries Neptune - Gas giant - Dark, cold, supersonic winds - Most distant - 4 times wider than earth - 1 year=16 hours - 1 year=165 years - Rings - Has 5 main rings and 4 prominent ring arcs - Also blue bc of methane - Magnetic field is stronger than earth and a lot like uranus - thick atmosphere - Gaseous on the outside, and has extended liquid ocean. Has heavier, earth sized core - Higher bulk density Neptune's Moons - Triton - Largest - Circles planet in the opposite direction to planets rotation - Thin atmosphere - Slight atmosphere because of ice volcanoes - Was a kuiper belt object that neptune captured Kuiper Belt object - Large region beyond the orbit of neptune - One of largest structures in solar system

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- Ice bodies in the region - Tend to orbit in the same plane as the planets in the solar system - Classical KBOS - these objects have orbits most similar to the original, or classical, idea of what the Kuiper Belt was expected to be like before astronomers started actually finding objects there - Resonant KBOS - their orbits are in a stable, repeating pattern with Neptune's - Scattered Disk - a region that stretches far beyond the main part of the Kuiper Belt - home to objects that have been scattered by Neptune into orbits that are highly elliptical and highly inclined to the plane of the planets Pluto - ⅙ width of earth - Elliptical and tilted - 1 day=153 hours - Has 5 moons - Low gravity/ thin atmosphere - Mostly made of ice - Oort Cloud - Home of comets - They have longer periods - Giant spherical shell surrounding the rest of the solar system Quiz Questions - Which of the following is not a characteristic of jovian planets - They have a higher density than terrestrial planets - Which planet has a moon with many sulfur volcanoes - Jupiter - Which planets have a rocky, relatively dense composition - Mercury, venus, earth, mars - Which of the following statements is false - Jupiter's moon io does nor have any volcanic activity - What properties characterize all the jovian planets (compared to terrestrial planets) - Many moons, large size, low densities

SOLAR SYSTEM FORMATION Greenhouse gasses - Absorb thermal radiation that is emitted by the surface Random Info - Due to venus slow radiation, its magnetic field failed to prevent heating of the atmosphere by the solar wind - Atmosphere, size, and distance to sun is key for habitability Formation - Natural outcome of star formation - Takes few tens of millions of years - The sun formed at the center of a spinning disk made of gas and dust - The planets in our solar system are thought to have come from the same cloud of gas and dust in which the sun formed - As the solar nebula collapsed, it became a disk because the overall rotation of the nebula plus collisions between particles made the particles go in more or less the same direction - Planets orbit the sun in close to the same plane because they all formed disk around the early sun and there was little material outside of that disk - The sun and solar system formed 4.5 billion years ago - Because of the temp in the protoplanetary disk, rocks and metals froze in both the inner and outer regions and ices and H and HE gases froze only in the outer region