Portia Edmunds AN310 Cultural Anthropology Assignment 4

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Portia Edmunds AC1800856 AN310 Cultural Anthropology Assignment 04 January 18, 2024

Part 1 Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism To grasp the myriad facets of the human experience, anthropology adopts a broad perspective. Miller, (2016) defines anthropology as the study of humanity, covering both its modern diversity and its prehistoric beginnings. In the community of anthropologists there are four fields—human biology- the study of what comprises our genetic makeup, biological makeup, bones, food, and general health, archaeology- a look into the past to learn about the values and way of life of human groups hundreds or thousands of years ago, cultural anthropology- where they observe communities as they are today in order to gain an insider's understanding of various social groups' customs, and linguistics- the study of language use, meaning-making, and social action organization across all social contexts and groupings ( What Is Anthropology? , n.d.). The field of focus for this paper, however, is cultural anthropology. Cultural anthropologists study human behavior through in-depth observations and interviews conducted within particular communities. They might concentrate on specific facets of life or establishments like family, religion, art, or economics, or they might attempt to define a way of life in its entirety. They then interpret the behavior by comparing it with the results of related studies conducted in other communities. As a result, we are able to make sense of behavior that initially seems illogical or even immoral and to comprehend the internal logic of other societies. In other words, Cultural Anthropology is simply applying the anthropological perspective to the study of culture. Culture shapes the environment we live in, affecting biology, human existence, and family dynamics. The term culture refers to people’s learned and shared behaviors and beliefs (Miller, 2016). Libretext (2021), further explains culture as a set of beliefs, practices, and symbols that are learned and shared together to create a comprehensive, cohesive whole that unites people and

molds their perspectives and ways of living, passed on from one generation to the next. Culture may be viewed from one of two perspectives: ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. As defined by Miller (2016)., ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate other cultures primarily according to the norms of one's own culture as opposed to those of other cultures. It is also explained by Worthy (2020), as the belief that one's own race, ethnicity, or cultural group is the most important or that some or all of its characteristics are better than those of other groups (Worthy, 2020). This cultural ignorance often leads to incorrect assumptions about others’ behavior and/or attempts to forcefully convert the group to their own way of life which in the past has led to disastrous outcomes if a group refuses to alter their cultural customs or way of life. A very common and typical example of ethnocentrism is Asian Cuisine as viewed by the Western society. In Western culture, it is generally accepted to consume some animals while demonizing the consumption of other animals. The Western standard is applied to other cultures in an ethnocentric way because it measures the Asian culture by the standards of their own. Why villainize the trade and consumption of dog meat and "other exotic meats," but leave eating other livestock—such as cows, pigs, chickens, etc.—unquestioned? The term "cultural relativism" refers to the idea that we should attempt to understand the cultural practices such as norms, values, ethics, morals, and beliefs of other groups within their own cultural context, rather than judging a culture according to our own standards of what is right or wrong, strange or normal (MSEd, 2023). Every culture holds its own set of beliefs, and no universal or absolute standard exists to evaluate those norms. We can apply the theory of cultural relativism to refrain from passing judgment on the customs of other groups. Therefore, it is the opposite of ethnocentrism. Simply put, Cultural relativism assumes that no culture is better than

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any other (Miller, 2016). The goal of cultural relativism is to support tolerance, acceptance, and an appreciation of various cultural practices and beliefs. In Trinidad where the religious beliefs and practices are so vast, almost every religion’s religious observances are celebrated and are marked as calendar holidays. By contrast, in most of the other Caribbean Islands, mostly Catholic holidays are observed. Part 2 Balanced and Unbalanced Modes of Exchange Systems known as modes of exchange are employed to make it easier for parties to distribute goods and services to one another. Although there are various types of exchange, it is feasible to categorize these varieties into two distinct exchange methods: balanced and unbalanced exchanges. Balanced exchange, according to Miller (2016), is a system of transfers in which the goal is either immediate or eventual balance in value. In this category, there are three distinct ways in which these interactions are branded based on the parties involved in the exchange and the level of expectation there is in terms of returns. These categories are generalized reciprocity, expected reciprocity and redistribution. Generalized reciprocity is related to altruism and typically involves exchanges between family members or friends (MSEd, 2023a). In foraging societies, generalized reciprocity is the primary mode of exchange between individuals who have a good working relationship and mutual trust (Miller, 2016). Instead of expecting a favor in return, people simply do something for another person based on the assumption that the other person would do the same thing for them. Buying coffee for a friend, a souvenir on a trip for a family member, or paying for dinner are all good

examples of such an exchange. However, a pure gift is an extreme version of generalized reciprocity and the best demonstrated example such as making a donation of clothes to an orphanage. Expected reciprocity also referred to as balanced reciprocity involves estimating the value of the exchange and counting on a reciprocal favor within a specified time frame (MSEd, 2023a, Barone, 2020). The exchange typically occurs between people of equal social status. An example of balanced reciprocity is buying a birthday gift for my best friend. Naturally, I know that my best friend would honor me with a gift on my birthday. Redistribution, the third of the balanced exchanges, refers to a system of economic exchange involving the centralized collection of items such as food, money, clothing, etc. from members of a group followed by the reallocation of those goods among those members ensuring that the needs of every member are met. It is a form of reciprocity within the group relationship and consist of pooling that creates a sense of community and cooperation (Libretexts, 2021). During my teenage years, the young people of my community would organize many parties. The items needed were provided by asking each member of the group to make a contribution towards the party whether it was monetary, food or drinks. I believe that this was a perfect of example of redistribution, unknown to us at the time. Unbalanced exchange or negative reciprocity is a system of transfers in which one party attempts to make a profit, such as market exchange, gambling, theft, or exploitation. One party tends to gain more out of the exchange than the other party. It is an attempt to “get something for nothing”, or to obtain something of greater value than you are willing to give in return (Barone, 2020). This kind of negotiation, Barone (2020), further explains is typically held between strangers as opposed to friends or family.

Market exchange, a form of negative exchange, is the buying and selling of goods in a competitive environment where supply and demand determine value and the seller seeks to make a profit. Purchasing a bedroom set at a furniture store on hire purchase is a typical example of market exchange. Gambling or gaming is another form of unbalanced exchange where one endeavors to profit from a game of chance in which a valuable item is staked with the expectation of receiving a much larger return should one win. A perfect example is the lottery. Theft is the act of taking another person’s property or services without that person’s permission or consent with the intent to deprive the rightful owner of it (Wikipedia contributors, 2024). There is absolutely no gain for the person whom the goods or services were stolen from. A stolen car is profitable only to the thief. Jenny.Jurga (2021) states that exploitation involves being groomed, forced, coerced into doing something that you don’t want to do for someone else’s gain. People might not realize they are being taken advantage of until things get really bad. When a supposedly charitable organization offer single mothers housing and job but rather force them into prostitution and drug distribution while holding their children in bondage as leverage over those parents. Part 3 The Universality of the Incest Taboo Human society has always frowned upon incest, which is stigmatized as abnormal and punishable by law, especially when minors are involved. According to most dictionaries, incest is defined as sexual activity or marriage between family members ( What Is Incest? | Incest AWARE , n.d.). The traditional definition of incest encompasses both sexual violence between

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children and their related adults as well as consensual incest between related adults: between a father and his daughter or son, between a mother and her daughter or son, between a brother and a sister, etc. The ban on incest is a global taboo that is ingrained in moral, religious, and legal traditions from both the past and the present (Sharaby, 2019). The incest taboo, or rule prohibiting marriage or sexual intercourse between certain kinship relations, is one of the most basic and universal rules of exclusion termed the universality of incest taboo. It is stigmatized as a deviation that carries serious consequences. Incest, especially when committed to a child is a kind of rape within the family. The abuser's authority and trust, coupled with the child's helplessness, make it possible for sexual abuse to occur in incest, even in cases where force is not used. This abuse causes a severe and ongoing trauma, particularly in incest perpetrated by one of the parents. (Sharaby, 2019). Lewis H. Morgan and others have suggested incestuous relationships have the potential to raise the risk of genetic disorders and congenital disabilities on a biological level ( Incest Taboo , n.d.). Therefore, taboo on incest may have developed as a safeguard to preserve the community's genetic integrity. Another theory indicated by Bronislaw Malinowski holds that incest taboo preserves social order by forbidding relationships of any kind within family, which could cause jealousy and strife and break up the family unit (Anthroholic, 2023). Anthropologists such as levi-Strauss, in his writings of the 1940s, posits that the taboo against incest serves significant social and economic purposes as well (Miller, 2016). He spent many years advocating that the exchange women between families are essential and universal in human society. He believes that social solidarity outside of the immediate group and all social

networks are built on this exchange. These networks, which are forged by bride exchange, encourage trade and peace between regions with disparate resources. Permit me however, to ask a few questions. Isn’t the universality of incest taboo a bit ethnocentric? Should one be evaluating other peoples and cultures according to the standards of one’s own culture? Is it taboo if the relationship occurs between consensual adults? Based on the perspective of “cultural relativism”, in some cultures, behavior that is strongly—perhaps even fanatically—forbidden is accepted, encouraged, or even expected. According to Incest Taboo , (n.d.), there are problems with any definition of incest taboo because the definition of “close relative” varies tremendously among different cultures. Therefore, the term "incest" is also culturally relative, with varying opinions regarding it depending on the time period, location, and cultural norms (Sharaby, 2019). Some of these norms included brother-sister marriages in royal families, primarily to maintain the family’s unique sense of divinity, first-cousin marriages that are either cross-cousins, or parallel cousins, to name a few. As a result, definitions of kinship relationships that are prohibited from engaging in sexual activity vary among societies. Whether these norms still exist or not, and whether one agrees or disagrees with the universality of the incest taboo, Anthropologists have long debated and still do about the reasons behind the taboo on incest.

References Anthroholic. (2023, July 20). Concept of incest Taboo | Anthroholic . Anthroholic. https://anthroholic.com/incest-taboo Barone, F. (2020, August 13). Reciprocity & Exchange: The Kula Ring . Human Relations Area Files - Cultural Information for Education and Research. https://hraf.yale.edu/teach- ehraf/reciprocity-exchange-the-kula-ring/#:~:text=Balanced%20reciprocity%20obligates %20the%20recipient,an%20example%20of%20balanced%20reciprocity . Incest taboo . (n.d.). https://anthropology.iresearchnet.com/incest-taboo/#:~:text=Bronislaw %20Malinowski%20and%20others%20have,parent%2Dchild%20and%20sibling %20roles . Jenny.Jurga. (2021, January 29). What is exploitation? - Preventing Exploitation Toolkit . Preventing Exploitation Toolkit. https://www.preventingexploitationtoolkit.org.uk/home/what-is-exploitation/ #:~:text=Exploitation%20involves%20being%20groomed%2C%20forced,do%20for %20someone%20else's%20gain . Libretexts. (2021, July 1). 7.4: modes of exchange . Social Sci LibreTexts. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anthropology/Cultural_Anthropology/ Cultural_Anthropology_(Wikibook)/7%3A_Production_Inequality_and_Development/ 7.4%3A_Modes_of_Exchange Libretexts. (2021, July 23). 2.1: What is Culture? Social Sci LibreTexts. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/HACC_Central_Pennsylvania's_Community_Coll ege/ANTH_205%3A_Cultures_of_the_World_-_Perspectives_on_Culture_(Scheib)/ 02%3A_What_is_Culture/2.01%3A_What_is_Culture

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Miller, B. D. (2016). Cultural Anthropology (8th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://online.vitalsource.com/books/9780134419619 MSEd, K. C. (2023a, March 7). What is reciprocity? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-rule-of-reciprocity- 2795891#:~:text=Generalized%20reciprocity%3A%20This%20form %20often,reciprocity%20is%20related%20to%20altruism . MSEd, K. C. (2023, July 8). Understanding cultural relativism and its importance . Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/understanding-cultural-relativism-7549709 Nickerson, C. (2023, September 29). Cultural Relativism: Definition & Examples . Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/cultural-relativism.html Sharaby, R. (2019). An anthropological view on the taboo incest as a mean for maintaining social and family order. Advances in Anthropology , 09 (04), 169–189. https://doi.org/10.4236/aa.2019.94012 What is anthropology? (n.d.). Indiana University of Pennsylvania. https://www.iup.edu/anthropology/undergrad/current-students/what-is-anthropology-/ index.html What is incest? | Incest AWARE . (n.d.). Incest AWARE. https://www.incestaware.org/what-is- incest Wikipedia contributors. (2024, January 10). Theft - Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theft Worthy, L. D. (2020, July 27). Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism . Pressbooks. https://open.maricopa.edu/culturepsychology/chapter/ethnocentrism-and-cultural- relativism/

Zhang, C. (2021, November 16). Ethnocentrism against cultural foods. Politically Invisible Asians . https://politicallyinvisible.substack.com/p/ethnocentrism-against-cultural-foods

Portia Edmunds AN310 Cultural Anthropology Assignment 4

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