Copy of Lab 9 - What survives into the archaeological record_

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ARCH 2800 - Archaeological Science Dr. Kara Fulton Lab 9 - What survives into the archaeological record? Your Team Name: Your Team Motto: Remember: this is a team assignment, so anything you write here should be the voice of the team (i.e., use “we” NOT “I”) Tip: As you read through the introductory material in this lab, highlight important information as you go. Resource : How to Use a Highlighter to Improve Your Grades. Site Formation Processes In the 1980s, archeologist Michael Schiffer 1 advocated for the study of something he called site formation processes. Site formation processes, sometimes more simply called formation processes, refer to the events that create, affect, and transform an archeological site after its creation. Two classes, or types, of formation processes are recognized in archaeology: cultural processes (C-transforms) and natural processes (N-transforms; your text also refers to these as “noncultural processes”). Examples of C-transforms include purposeful and accidental discard of objects (i.e., trash), burning and demolition of structures, and even archeological excavation itself. N-transforms include catastrophic natural events such as earthquakes, floods, and landslides, as well as slow processes such as rodent burrowing and decomposition. This concept forces us to think about how sites are formed to begin with, how they are transformed over time, and how they are ultimately destroyed -- all of which help us better understand human behavior and adaptation to their local environment. Imagine a meandering river flowing through a floodplain. Along the river bend, where the current slows down, much sand and gravel are left behind. Over the centuries, so much is deposited that it becomes stable and a group of hunter-gatherers begin to fish there every spring. They camp there year after year, leaving behind campfires, stone tools, and fishbones. After a few decades, the river meanders slightly away, leaving the old sandbar high and dry -- so much so that people begin to live here year-round, building several houses and a plaza. Then, perhaps a century or so later, the climate becomes wetter and the river begins to flow more strongly and becomes wider, filling in the entire older channel. In the wettest years, the river floods repeatedly, forcing the people who once lived on the sandbar to abandon the site for higher ground; they still come to fish in the spring but then return to their village a mile away. The initial energy of the floodwaters may destroy some of the houses and even scour out the site so much that the top layer is removed altogether, erasing the evidence of the most recent village 1 Schiffer, M. (1987). Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.

ARCH 2800 - Archaeological Science habitation. But an astute archaeologist who knows how to read the sentiments will be able to “see” the flood. The destruction of this uppermost layer may at first seem like a bad thing, but there is an upside: the sediments the flood lays down also act to “seal” the remaining deposits and protect the site from further destruction such as rodent burrowing or looting. Additionally, even though some data have been lost, knowing a flood was the culprit is important to understanding why people settled there in the first place and why it was abandoned later -- both of which are important for understanding how past people affect, and are affected by, their local environment. So, an understanding of formation processes is vital to accurate reconstructions of the past. The archeologist Brian Fagan 2 sums up formation processes this way: “The archeological record that has come down to us is a sorry reflection of once vibrant, living cultures. From the moment a site was abandoned, or a dwelling burnt down, the forces of human activity and nature have acted on it.” Additions and Subtractions This first activity is intended for you to explore the various processes that form and shape archaeological sites. You will do this by completing a table consisting of four cells: 1) cultural processes/behaviors that add material to sites, 2) cultural processes/behaviors that subtract (i.e., remove) material from sites, 3) natural processes that add material to sites, and, 4) natural processes that subtract material from sites. The purpose of creating this table is to understand the vast number of processes that occur to create and destroy sites, and how they can help archaeologists better understand human behavior and the natural environmental processes that contribute to people settling or abandoning a site. Q1. Among your team, discuss processes that might add to or take away from an archaeological site before it's excavated, both things that people do ( cultural , C-transforms) and that nature does ( natural , N-transforms). Record at three processes in each category (cultural-addition / cultural-subtraction / natural-addition / natural-subtraction). For each process, explain why it belongs in that category using one sentence . Two types of formation processes - Natural transformation process, or N transform - Cultural processes or C-transform N transform -those types of change brought by the natural world rather than cultural events E.G bone weathering due to surface exposure C transform - Those types of change brought about by the cultural world or human activity E.G Intentional body burning for ritual disposal 2 Fagan, B. (1978). Quest for the Past: Great Discoveries in Archaeology. Reading, MA: Addison.

ARCH 2800 - Archaeological Science Note: If a process could exist in more than one category, be sure to explicitly explain the difference between each category. For example (do not use this example in your answers): Natural-addition 1. Flood ○ 1 sentence explanation: a flood would be a natural addition if the flood brings in sand and gravel from elsewhere and deposits a layer of it on the site. Natural-subtraction 1. Flood ○ 1 sentence explanation: A flood would be a natural subtraction if it washes away material from the archaeological site and deposits it elsewhere. Cultural Natural addition 1. ● 1 sentence explanation: 2. ● 1 sentence explanation: 3. ● 1 sentence explanation: 1. ● 1 sentence explanation: 2. ● 1 sentence explanation: 3. ● 1 sentence explanation: subtraction 1. ● 1 sentence explanation: 2. ● 1 sentence explanation: 3. ● 1 sentence explanation: 1. ● 1 sentence explanation: 2. ● 1 sentence explanation: 3. ● 1 sentence explanation: Q2. Why can archaeology itself be considered a “cultural subtraction”? Because artifacts are washed away from the surface of the earth or deep under the earth oftenly its like an example. Case Studies Now that you have an understanding of different formation processes, examine the two case studies below and answer the corresponding questions. Case Study 1: The Amazon (for Q3-5) Note: you only need to watch 15:50-18:25 and you’ll have to watch a few ads before the

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ARCH 2800 - Archaeological Science video begins. Q3. What is terra preta ? Terra preta is a type of very dark, fertile anthropogenic soil found in the Amazon Basin. It is also known as "Amazonian dark earth" or "Indian black earth". Q4. What kind of formation process is this? (highlight the correct answer below) cultural-addition cultural-subtraction natural-addition natural-subtraction In your own words, explain your selected answer in 1-2 sentences: Cultural subtraction In the past, nonhuman explanations for the formation of terra preta have been suggested: sedimentation from floods, organic matter building up in lakes and small ponds, and ash fallout from Andean volcanoes Q5. Why does archaeological knowledge of terra preta have significance today? It's relevant for climate change, sustainable agriculture, biodiversity, tropical forests, and indigenous knowledge and cultural preservation.” Schmidt is an anthropologist and geologist who studies terra preta soils in the Amazon. Case Study 2: Norway (for Q6-8) Note: this is an article as well as a short video, be sure to review both. Q6. How is climate change transforming the archaeological record? Climate change threatens archaeology in Norway and the rest of Scandinavia. Q7. What kind of formation process is this? (highlight the correct answer below) cultural-addition cultural-subtraction natural-addition natural-subtraction In your own words, explain your selected answer in 1-2 sentences: I think cultural subtraction destroys ancient relics before we even see them.

ARCH 2800 - Archaeological Science Q8. Do you think this process is positive, negative, or both? Why? (in 1-2 sentences) I think its negative because we should have the opportunity to learn and understand things about the evolution of humans and the earth. Site Preservation Site formation and preservation is also affected by climate. Specifically, the survival of organic materials into the archaeological record depends greatly on the environment in which they were left. Since organic materials are biodegradable, it is only under extreme circumstances that they can be properly preserved through time and survive into the archaeological record. Usually temperate climates, such as in Europe, are not suitable for preservation and tend to increase the rate of decay. Tropical climates are the worst; the heavy rains and warm temperatures combined with high acidity levels in the soil destroy a site very quickly. Important: Before continuing, make sure you understand the difference between organic and inorganic remains- refer back to the module if needed. Plants, animals, humans, textiles, and wood are all examples of organic materials that require specific climates in order to be properly preserved and found centuries, if not millennia, later. There are three main environments where organic material can successfully be preserved: Dry Preservation Climates or environments that are arid and lack moisture provide perfect conditions for dry preservation. The hot sands of Egypt are perhaps the most common example of this. Dry does not always need to be hot though, as can be seen by the airtight coffin that preserved the body of Lady Dai (this link has photos of a mummified human) found in China. Without moisture entering the environment, bacteria and microorganisms are not able to flourish and begin their work on decomposing organic material. Cold Preservation Similar to our own refrigeration system, freezing organic material can essentially keep a moment in time locked away until thawing occurs. The arctic offers a great deal of unlocked archaeological evidence, and has proven to preserve some extraordinary things: Ötzi the Iceman (this link has photos of a mummified human) , for example, or the immaculate wooly mammoths pulled from the tundra. Flesh and skin are so well preserved, that archaeologists can see tattoos, as well as decipher a plethora of vital information regarding daily life. Wet (Waterlogged) Preservation If wetland archaeology weren’t as expensive as it was, it would probably be one of the most

ARCH 2800 - Archaeological Science popular forms of excavation as it can preserve the most organic material. Submersion in a lake, bog, swamp, etc. essentially creates an anoxic (no oxygen) environment for the artifact. Without oxygen, bacteria cannot grow or feed on the organic material, leaving it essentially untouched until it is uncovered by excavation. Bog bodies (this link has photos of a mummified human) are an example of famous finds in waterlogged environments. Waterlogged archaeological wood is also vital for tree ring dating timelines. The main concern lies with removal from the wet environment as it immediately begins to dry out and degrade. Careful attention must be paid to wet finds and they must be conserved accordingly. Case Studies Now that you have an understanding of how climate affects site and artifact preservation, examine the two case studies below and answer the corresponding questions. Case Study 3: Windover, Florida (for Q9-10) Q9. What organic remains were preserved in this case study? (list at least three different types of remains) 1. Woven materials 2. Antler tools 3. Food remains Q10. What type of environment/climate contributed to the level of preservation seen in this case study? (highlight the correct answer below) dry cold wet In your own words, explain your selected answer in 1-2 sentences: I think dry because if tools, materials, or food remains could be found, then the soil had to have been strong and thick. Case Study 4: Hinds Cave, Texas (for Q11-12) Q11. What organic remains were preserved in this case study? (list at least three different types of remains) 1. Plant remains 2. Fiber sandals 3. Human coprolites Q12. What type of environment/climate contributed to the level of preservation seen in this case study? (highlight the correct answer below) dry cold wet In your own words, explain your selected answer in 1-2 sentences: I think wet because and dry somehow because if human coprolites/ plant remains were found,

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ARCH 2800 - Archaeological Science there had to be a little bit of moisture in the soil.

Copy of Lab 9 - What survives into the archaeological record_

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