Lesson 8 - The Life Cycle (Notes + Article)

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Marriage: A more or less stable union, usually between two people, who are likely, bu sexually involved with each other, and procreative with each other. • Marriage is often, in many societies, considered the marker for adulthood - Anthropologists have observed that 3 main types of exchange take place at marr exchange - Marriage can be an important event for both the individuals getting married and whether the ceremony is religious or not. - There is a great diversity in the types of marriages (i.e. ghost marriages – when in same sex marriages, multiple partner marriages, love marriages or arranged mar monogamous, as most societies in the world have historically allowed for people - Marriage is characterized by long-lasting relationships (between the marrying in b ased on a contract with social obligations that go beyond the two individuals - It is important to view marriage within a legal framework, in that it allows for the the transfer of rights and goods, and the interests of those involved in the contra - Lesson 8 - The Life Cycle (Notes + Article) Tuesday, February 15, 2022 7:03 PM

ut not necessarily, to be co-resident, riage: bride price , dowry and gift d their families, regardless of ndividuals get married by proxy – rriages); marriages need not be e to have multiple spouses. ndividuals and their families) and is themselve s. e understanding of partnerships, actual arrangements

Who can I marry? Who can I not marry? Who must I marry? Ideally, in most Western societies, when considering marriage, social and econom subordinated to the ideal of marrying for love. - What is just as interesting from an anthropological point of view is that cultural g of people one can marry or one must marry, and more importantly, the category - We could summarize marriage as the following : Marriage is: 1) an established social and economic contract; 2) it assigns and defines the so are born to it or adopted; and 3) it creates alliances between kin groups. Arranged Marriages: In societies where the personal satisfactions of the married coup and interests of the larger group, choosing a mate is a much less haphazard affair. The groom have a strong vested interest in seeing that both parties will fulfill their obligati more control over marriage arrangements. In these types of societies, arranged marria bride and groom have no say in their choice of partner . This was the preferred form o world. • Endogamy: Marriage within a particular group or setting (Factors like social class, relig education, availability etc) •

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mic considerations are often groups have defined the categories y of people one must not marry. ocial identity of children when they ple are subordinate to the needs e kin groups of both bride and ions, and therefore have much ages are much more common. The of marriage of royalty around the gion, ethnic affiliation, age,

In some cultural groups, rules are strict: among the Bedouin of Arabia, it was exp close cousin. Endogamy, it is said, consolidates group solidarity and prevents the endogamy and exogamy require a clear definition of the type of group that you a society is endogamous in some ways, and exogamous in others. - ○ Exogamy: Marriage outside a particular group or region. •

pected that a boy would marry a e dispersion of wealth. Note that are marrying in and out of. Every s

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It can be said that exogamy is a sort of extension of the incest taboo, but wherea sexual behavior, exogamy deals with marriage. In societies where marriage mat choice of marital partners. Exogamy rules force the individual to seek a marriag group, such as a clan or a lineage that one belongs to. In some societies, such as the social group is divided into moieties (half) so that people can marry people fr - Anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss proposed that exogamy is central to exch groups and indeed many societies make exogamy the only possible form of marr - Incest taboo: Strongly held prohibition against marrying or having sex with particular k siblings) • Hypergyny: Marriage in which the groom is of higher status than the bride. • Hypogyny: Marriage in which the bride is of higher status than the groom. • Hypergamy : the action of marrying/forming a sexual relationship with a person of a su background • Polygamy: Marriage involving more than two spouses. • Polygynous marriages are the normal marriage patterns in many African societie for families linked more to access to resources, relative power and conflicts of in to sexual jealousy. However, strong solidarities develop among co-wives. They m may even be sisters. Polygyny is practiced by men of high rank who can afford to - Polygyny is also practiced for religious reasons. Let us recall that Islam allows me time, provided that he can keep them well. The Qur'an states that men who opt fairly, spend as much time with each of them and give them the same amount of variation exists among Muslim countries regarding the 'rule' of polygyny. In some written into civil law. In others, such as Turkey, or Azerbaijan for instance, where polygyny is not allowed either. - Monogamy: Marriage of one husband and one wife if the couple is heterosexual and t the couple is homosexual •

as the incest taboo deals with tters, rules exist that govern the ge partner outside a specific social s the Australian Aborigine societies, rom the other moiety. hange and alliance between social riage. kin (ex: intercourse between uperior sociological or educational es: they pose structural problems nterest in relation to children than may be from the same lineage; they o have multiple spouses. en to have up to FOUR wives at a to have four wives must treat them f money. But a great degree of e Muslim countries, polygyny is e Islamic marital law is not applied, two people of the same gender if

Monogamy means that people are married to only one person at any given time monogamy: they are married to one person at any given time, but they will have - Serial monogamy: Relationship style that involves having a series of monogamous (oft than taking solo breaks or casually dating in between. Serial monogamists feel more co relationships than on casual dates or hook-ups. • Polyandry: Marriage of one wife with more than one husband • Parallel cousin marriage: Offspring of either one father's brother or one's mother's sis • Bridewealth: Transfer of cash and goods from the groom to the bride's father. • Plays 4 roles: It ensures that the rights over the bride's fertility will be transferred to the lineag born in the marriage will belong to the father’s lineage. 1. It is seen as a compensation to the bride's kin group for the loss of her work, serv 2. It is an acknowledgement of the girl’s personal value and distinction. 3. It seals an alliance between the two families. 4. Bridewealth exchange involves THREE types of transactions: one between the gr himself, one between the father of the groom and the father of the bride, and on and members of his lineage or clan. The goods need to be rare and since young m goods, they enlist the help of members of their lineage to secure a wife. - In pastoralist societies of East Africa, bridewealth is often associated with polyg control of prestige valuables and marital politics to accumulate multiple wives fo young men (and hence control the labour power and fertility of young wives dire which ensures that the children will be considered to belong to the husband's lin - Dowry/Groom price: Transfer of cash and goods from the bride's family to the bride a • The practical advantages of this system are twofold:

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e, but some people practice serial e a few marriages in their lifetime. ten long-term) relationships, rather omfortable in exclusive, committed ster. ge of the groom, i.e. all children vice, presence and fertility. room’s family and the groom ne between the father of the bride men do not have access to such gamy . Senior men in East Africa use or themselves at the expense of ectly). It is this exchange of cattle neage and to his line of descent. and groom or to the groom's family

The out-marrying daughter becomes financially independent, and with a good dowr good (financially secure) marriage. 1. The family estate will not be divided any further, and the heirs can count on land tha Many different types of goods make up the dowry in different parts of the world, an money, jewelry, household goods (such as the trousseau typical of some areas of Eu 2. Genocide: Destruction of a culture and its people through physical extermination. • Menarche: The onset of menstruation, which marks the biological beginning of a wom • Ethnocide: Destruction of a culture without physically killing its people. • More than any other animal, human beings depend on the social transmission of know infants cannot survive without the help of people. In addition, the maturation process period necessary for the child to become autonomous from her/his parents, is slower offspring. In order for this to happen, the human children need support from others in they live. Social organization and cultural knowledge provide the necessary frame in w socialized and protected by others. • The process by which children acquire their culture, either formally (through being tol informally (i.e. through observation and imitation) is called enculturation. • The most common types of rites of passage (can be religious or non-religious) inclu Naming ceremonies , which confer social existence to the new member of t a. Puberty celebrations , which confer adult status. b. Marriage , which legitimizes one's sexual relationship and child rearing oblig c. Funerals , which proclaim the loss of life and allow society to restructure in d. Social birth is often associated with naming ceremonies through which the child truly society and is recognized by all. In places where infant mortality is high, a period of 9 d the child is announced. •

ry, chances are that she will make a at will be theirs to develop and work. nd sometimes in combination: land, urope), houses, and so on. man’s fertility cycle. wledge in order to survive. Human s of the human child, i.e. the time than that of any other animal n the cultural environment in which which the child develops, is ld what to do or not do) or ude: the society. gations. different ways. becomes a member of her/his days takes place before the birth of

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Adoption is the formal and permanent transfer of a child to the care of someone else. cross-culturally and is often associated with the local conception of what a family is an • Naming a child is symbolic because you are recognizing it as a member of society. • Top 5 most popular baby names for 2019 in Canada: GIRLS: Olivia, Emma, Alice, Charlie, Charlotte BOYS: Liam, William, Thomas, Leo Noah The purpose of transition to adolescence through puberty rites (or not) indicates that being capable of reproduction. In some societies, reaching puberty is akin to becoming • Aside from rituals that mark the union of two or more people (marriage), rituals that m most important. It seems that adolescence (defined here culturally, as opposed to pub by an overt or covert recognition that the child is moving into another phase of life wh are part of life. • The most important puberty rituals are found in societies where social control of terms of the children being expected to perform tasks and assuming responsibili instance, among the Nuer of the Sudan, the rites of male initiation involve deep a period of seclusion. The facial markings, called gaar , symbolize the transition o and their incorporation into other age groups. Female initiations, when they exis menarche (the arrival of the first menses). They also may involve painful physica • Philosopher Michel Foucault has proposed that pain inflicted on the body may b mind • Communitas : the sense of sharing and intimacy that develops among persons who exp • Liminality: a state of transition between one stage and the next, especially between m rite of passage . •

. As with birthing, adoption varies nd where a child fits into it. t the child is becoming a sexual g an adult mark the coming of age are the berty) is marked almost universally here reproduction and adulthood f the children is the stronger, in ities associated with age. For scarification of the forehead during of the young boys into young men st, usually take place at the time of al rites. be a step towards the control of the perience liminality as a group major stages in one's life or during a s

rite of passage . More than any other animal, human beings depend on the social transmission of know infants cannot survive without the help of people. In addition, the maturation process period necessary for the child to become autonomous from her/his parents, is slower offspring. In order for this to happen, the human children need support from others in the live. Social organization and cultural knowledge provide the necessary frame in w socialized and protected by others. • • ARTICLE - Mothers and Others (Sarah Hardy) Of all the attachments mammalian babies form, none is more powerful than that betw mothers. No matter how deformed, scrawny, odd, or burdensome, there is no baby th • Once a baby has nursed at his mother’s breast and lactation is under way, a woman’s responses to this stimulation, combined with visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory cue attachment to her baby. Once she passes this tip ping point, a mother’s passionate de overrides other (including conscious) considerations. • Infant sharing is even more common among Central African foragers. In nomadic comm Efe, mothers share their babies with group members immediately after birth and then • Among the Aka, the mother’s mother typically takes the neonate right after birth, was cloth, and holds him until the placenta is delivered. Among the Efe, other women clus several of them acting as midwives • Both Efe and Aka women pass the infant around after birth, and regardless of whethe may comfort the newborn by allowing him to suck on their nipples. Over the next 48 hours or so, before the mother’s own milk comes in, the baby w or three times a day—by one or more lactating allomothers. If a lactating woman a wet nurse may be temporarily recruited from another village. • • Why are postpartum women so much more tolerant of group members than other ap •

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wledge in order to survive. Human s of the human child, i.e. the time than that of any other animal cultural environment in which they which the child develops, is ween baby primates and their hat a wild ape mother won’t keep hormonal and neurological es, produce a powerful emotional esire to keep her baby safe usually munities composed of 25-30 Aka or n keep right on sharing. shes him in a stream, wraps him in ster around a woman in labor, er they are actually lactating, they will also be nursed—as often as two n does not currently reside in camp, pes living in the wild?

Humans’ large neocortex is an obvious possibility • Mothers also understand how beneficial it is for a baby to be introduced to a com baby, the mother sends a clear signal that both she and her offspring will be cou • By exposing alloparents to the sight, sound, and smell other alluring little charge for emotional tics binding her baby to potential caretakers and vice versa. • Efe babies average 14 different caretakers in the first days of life (Male caregivers are cousins, less often grandfathers or uncles. Females are typically older sisters, aunts, or • Among chimpanzees, who also grow up slowly, infants are provisioned insofar as they their mothers. A youngster as old as two years has been observed to push pouted lips delivers a lip full of shared food right into his mouth • How mothers among this overlooked half of the primate order deal with infants in the there is no one, universal pattern of infant care among primates 1. continuous-care-and-contact mothering is a last resort for primate mothers who 2. there is nothing evolutionarily out of the ordinary about mothers cutting corners 3. • Of all extant primates, the ones that most closely resemble ancient primates from the ago are lemurs, lorises, and bushbabies. • Life history theory is the branch of evolutionary biology devoted to questions such as to be?” “What size babies should it produce?” “How much time and energy should an starting to breed, and then how often should it breed?” One widely accepted tenet of life history theory is that, across species, those wit mother's body size will also tend to exhibit longer intervals between births becau mother to produce, the longer she will need to recoup before reproducing again • • Where do all humans descend from? 1. Apes and primates

mmunity of others. By sharing her unting on the help from the clan. e, the mother lays the ground work usually fathers, brothers, or r grandmothers) y are permitted to grab food from s into his mother’s face until she e period after birth? o lack safe and available alternatives s or relying on shared care e fossil record of 50 million years “How big should an organism grow animal spend on growing before th bigger babies relative to the use the more babies cost the n.

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What does Hardy mean by “emotionally modern humans”? (p. 66) 2. Emotionally modern humans: bipedal apes born with giving impulses and empathic, in profoundIv different from those we see in chimpan zees today — people preadapted to when crowded together on an airplane. What are hominins? 3. any member of the zoological “tribe” Hominini (family Hominidae, order Primates), of today — Homo sapiens, or human beings . What novel rearing conditions is Hardy referring to on page 66? 4. What does succor mean? 5. Giving assistance and support in times of hardship/distress. When did the first mammals emerge? (p. 68) 6. 200 million years ago How many species of living primates are there? (p. 69) 7. 276 How does Hardy define maternal devotion? How is this exhibited across human and 8.

ntersubjective aptitudes o get along with one another even f which only one species exists d non-human primates? And across o

How does Hardy define maternal devotion? How is this exhibited across human and other mammalian mothers? 8. Affection shown towards their offspring's. A woman undergoes the same endocrinolog pregnancy as other apes. At birth, her cortisol levels and heartbeat reflect just how se become. But whereas the nonhuman ape mother undiscriminatingly accepts any infan account physical attributes, the human mother’s devotion is more conditional. A newb drowned, buried alive, or simply wrapped in leaves and left in the bush within hours o What endocrinological transformations do human mothers undergo during pregnanc to nonhuman primates? (p. 71) 9. A woman undergoes the same endocrinological transformations during pregnancy as o levels and heartbeat reflect just how sensitive to infant cues she has become.12 But w undiscriminatingly accepts any infant born to her without taking into account physical devotion is more conditional. A newborn perceived as defective may be drowned, bur leaves and left in the bush within hours of birth What is a grasping reflex? 10. a primitive and involuntary reflex found in infants of humans and most primates . Why is it that maternal abandonment most often occurs with newborn babies? 11. Because once a baby has nursed at his mother’s breast and lactation is under way, a w responses to this stimula tion, combined with visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory cue attachment to her baby. Once she passes this tip ping point, a mother’s passionate de overrides other (including conscious) considerations.

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d non-human primates? And across gical transformations during ensitive to infant cues she has nt born to her without taking into born perceived as defective may be of birth cy? How does this differ or relate other apes. At birth, her cortisol whereas the nonhuman ape mother l attributes, the human mother’s ried alive, or simply wrapped in woman’s hormonal and neurological es, produce a powerful emotional esire to keep her baby safe usually

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How much energy does carrying an infant consume? Can you find various examples 12. Hardy provides a comparative analysis of hunter and gatherer, nomadic, and newly the importance of alloparenting in human evolution. Which societies does she discu 13. farming or postindustrial societies What influence does the neocortex make in the postpartum parenting strategies of h (p. 79) 14. Makes them more tolerant. Not only do human mothers need more help get ting big - b birth canals but they are better able to evaluate the costs and benefits of their own be Who is John Bowlby? What major theory did he conceptualize? 15. Within the field of developmental psychology’, the most influential evo lutionist since D Bowlby. He conceptualized the Attachment Theory -- > humans are born with a need t with a caregiver and that such a bond will develop during the first six months of a child appropriately responsive How does behaviorist John Watson view crying? What were his parenting strategies 16. Viewed is as perverse. Watson warned that it was ill - advised to pick up a crying baby. condition him to cry more. Far better to let the baby cry it out.

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in the text? pastoral societies to demonstrate uss? human and nonhuman mothers? brained babies through narrow ehavior Darwin was unquestionably John to form a close emotional bond d's life if the caregiver is s? (p. 82) It would spoil the child and

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What is The Handbook of Attachment Theory ? What influence did it have? (p. 83) 17. It summarizes hun dreds of studies, most of them from Western societies, elucidating h a “warm, intimate, and continuous” rela tionship turns out to be as addictive as opium evidence for how and why the infant’s confidence in his or her care takers contributes expectations (or “internal working models”) about the social world that lay the ground relationships. According to Hardy, what did Bowlby overlook? (p. 84) 18. the many alternative modes of infant care found among primates. Which primates constitute the Old World monkeys? New World monkeys? What are 19. chimpan zees, gorillas, and two species of catarrhine Old World monkeys. Old World m subfamilies, the cercopithecines and colobines. What is particular about the Callitrichidae family of nonhuman primate? 20. a family of New World monkeys, including marmosets, tamarins, and lion tamarins . M care of babies Is there a correlation between the amount of available male helpers and infant surv correlation between available helpers overall? 21. Yes. In mature groups, the correlation extends to the number of both male and female alloparental help is one reason mothers strive for social dominance and fiercely defen The alpha female may drive away rival females or, if a subordinate female in her group con ceive and give birth, kill (and perhaps eat) her babies.

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how and why a baby’s felt need for m. It also lays out compel ling s to emotional security and sets up d work for Subsequent e their parental strategies? monkeys are divided into two Males are mostly involved in taking vival rate? What about the e caregivers . The importance of nd access to this critical resource. p (even her own daughter) does n

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What does couvade mean? 22. the custom in some cultures in which a man takes to his bed and goes through certain born, as though he were physically affected by the birth. How does Hardy discuss reciprocal altruism? (p. 97) 23. altruism that occurs between unrelated individuals when there will be repayment (or of the altruistic act in the future What does cooperative breeding mean? 24. a reproductive strategy in which most of the females of a social group do not breed re alloparental care to the offspring of breeding females . What are the downsides to shared care? 25. tamarin mothers short on help may abandon their own young, bailing out at birth by f they fall to the ground or forcing clinging newborns off their bodies, sometimes even c As per Hillard Kaplan, how many calories does it roughly take to raise a human child 26. 13 million What conclusion did Stephanie Coontz make in regard to infants born into poverty? 27.

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n rituals when his child is being at least the promise of repayment) egularly and instead provide failing to pick up neonates when chewing on their hands or feet. d form birth to age 18? (p.101) (p. 103)

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