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Food- The Origins of Agriculture Anthropology 1AA3 Beatrice Fletcher
Review: Diet in Hominin Evolution
To Discuss This Lecture What evidence can anthropologists draw on to determine diet? What types of food systems are there?
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What is Agriculture and How Do We “See” it?
Key Concept: Subsistence System A subsistence system is the set of practices by which a population acquires and consumes food. Diet is the foods eaten by a given population
Determining Diet: Stable Isotope Analysis Stable isotope analysis can be conducted on human remains to help determine diet Carbon isotopes are of particular interest Carbon isotopes can tell you about plant diets C3 plants, like wheat, rice, and barley will have less C-13 than C4 plants like corn, millet, and sugarcane.
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Determining Diet: Stable Isotope Analysis Nitrogen isotopes are also of interest Nitrogen isotopes are a proxy for trophic level. In other words, they can tell you about the amount of meat vs. plant food consumed. Meat eaters or omnivores will have a higher N-15 to N-14 ratio than vegetarians or vegans Diets rich in marine carnivores tend to have higher N-15 to N- 14 ratios than diets of exclusively terrestrial foods
Broad Categories of Subsistence Systems Hunter-Gatherers/Hunter- Fisher-Gatherers : societies that depend predominantly on a variety of non- domesticated foodstuffs Food Producers : societies that depend on one or more domesticated or deliberately managed food species (includes agriculturalists)
Types of Hunter- Gatherer Foragers Move people as needed Change base camps regularly (days to weeks) Conduct short day trips for food/raw materials Consume foods within a few days Works well in harsh climates where foods are dispersed over larger areas Works well with small groups
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Types of Hunter- Gatherer Collectors Move food to people Have longer term settlements (months to years) Conduct longer trips for food/raw materials Create small resource-gathering camps Store surpluses Works well when food can be found large, predictable short term supplies Works with larger, less mobile groups Ivrulik Winter House
WHY FORAGE? WHY COLLECT?
Types of Food Producers Horticulturalists: “Garden” a variety of species in plots, usually by hand; Agriculturalists: Cultivate of a small number of food species, normally cereals and select animals, using tended fields. Pastoralists: Rely on herding animals for meat, milk, blood, and other products.
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IMPORTANT: STATIC CATEGORIES OF FOOD PRODUCTION OBSCURE A DYNAMIC CONTINUUM “ … cultural terms such as “farming” and “domesticated,” are attempts to impose static categories on a dynamic and multidimensional underlying variability. The easy “opposites,” too, of “hunter-forager”/“agriculturalist” and “wild”/“domesticated” camouflage underlying continuous variability. ”
Ex. Mariculture- Northwest Coast Clam gardens are present all over the Northwest Coast These gardens were made by modifying the coastline to form large tidal pools, ideal for bivalves. The Northwest coast was not a formally “agricultural” society Images from: Lepofsky et al. 2015 ; (c) Darcy Turner, 2016, Sliammon First Nation: http:// www.sliammonfirstnatio n.com/archaeology/ clams2.html
Ex. Forest Farming and Foraging ‘“When you go out in the jungle, you must know the things you can eat,” he told me. He also showed me trees that fed his ancestors… “They plantedall these things,” Paran said, right there, in the forest. " https://www discovermagazine com/planet earth/the myth of the virgin rainforest
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Domestication Domestication is when plants & animals become dependent upon human intervention for survival Domestication is achieved through the process of selection Selection: (one mechanism by which evolution operates): change in the frequency of a given trait in the population asa result of differential fitness in individuals with and without that trait Fitness: reproductive success, measured in the number of surviving offspring produced by an individual Domestication often involves noticeable morphological changes in the species size, shape, and physical properties to improve the food yield or manageability of a species
PEOPLE ALTER DOMESTICATES THROUGH SELECTING FOR DESIRABLE TRAITS • Domestication selects for changes in … • Reproduction • Defence mechanisms • Social organization • Morphology & physiognomy
How can we “see” plant domestication in the archaeological record? Anthropologists within the subdiscipline of paleoethnobotany study plants in the past These anthropologists often study macroremains and microremains Macroremains include charred nuts/seeds and preserved plant components that can be viewed with the naked eye Microremains include smaller parts of plants (ex. phytoliths and starch grains) that can be viewed using a microscope Sometimes, the presence of certain plants can be indicative of subsistence strategy (ex. seeing plants that have moved from their traditional geographic ranges) Other times morphological changes in plant structures are indicative of domestication
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Determining Plant Type Different plants have visually distinctive seeds and structures (unique morphology) This extends to some microscopic components (microremains) like phytoliths, spores, pollen, and starch grains Phytoliths are microscopic silica structures found in plants Starch grains are food reserves within plants ( see image )
Phytoliths Pollen Grains
Morphological changes Humans select for… bigger fruits • Grain & fruit size increase • Can occur through “seedbed selection” From Fig. 2. Peng et al.2011
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ALTERED SEED DISPERSAL CAN OCCUR NATURALLY —BUT INCREASES BY S • ELECTION nd “domestic type” (R.)rachises rom Ohalo II (Image: Snir etal. “wild type” (L)a on wild barley f 2015)
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Morphological changes: Humans select for.. Altered seed dispersal • Einkorn: Domestic type (L) and wild type (r ) showing brittle rachis in wild type Wild type” (L) and “domestic type” (R.) rachises on wild barley from Ohalo II (Image: Snir etal. 2015)
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How can we “see” animal domestication in the archaeological record? Anthropologists in the subdiscipline of zooarchaeology study human-animal interactions in the past These anthropologists often study faunal material Faunal material includes animal bones and teeth Sometimes, the presence of certain animals can be indicative of subsistence strategy (ex. seeing animals that have moved from their traditional geographic ranges) Other times morphological changes in skeletal or dental structure are indicative of domestication In other cases population demographics shift (ex. more females and fewer males)
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Determining Animal Type Different animals have different bone shapes, structures, and sizes Depending on the bone, zooarchaeologists may be able to determine the genus or even species of animal that the bone belonged to.
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Morphological changes: Humans select for… • Smaller Horns & bodies (selection for docillity)
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Which species get domesticated? A small proportion of plants and animals are suited to domestication Short generation time (produce lots of babies!) Genetically plastic (e.g. in maize, several traits relating to reproduction & dispersal are controlled by just a few genes, making them easier to select for) Able to tolerate human-created environments (e.g. pens & paddocks ; tilled fields; homes) (In animals) Socially amenable to human control Common plant domesticates are grains, cereals, fruits, and legumes Common animal domesticates include dogs, sheep, cows, pigs, chickens, and goats
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DOMESTICATION IS AN EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS - IN FACT, IT IS A COEVOLUTIONARY PROCESS • Some other examples of coevolution: • Disease resistance (of hosts) • Predator-prey adaptations • Human lactase persistence
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DOMESTICATION IS A RESULT OF MUTUALISM Image: from textbook, p. 261 • Mutualistic relationships are coevolutionary ecological relationships that are beneficial (or at least neutral) to bothspecies • I.e. humans eat domesticates; but by tending them, they help them thrive & outcompete other taxa
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HOW DO MUTUALISMS FORM? Image: Women harvesting camas© Gordon Friesen • People commit time & effort to preferred food species: in other words, they form relationships with them.
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HOW DO MUTUALISMS FORM? • They observe food species & may experiment! • Some experiments produce lucky results!
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IN MANY PARTS OF THE WORLD, FOOD PRODUCTION LIVES ALONGSIDE HUNTING & GATHERING • Even in regions where farming eventually became the norm, it often co-existed with hunting & gathering for millennia!
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FOOD PRODUCTION AND HUNTING/GATHERING OFTEN COEXIST WITHIN THE SAME SUBSISTENCE SYSTEM This leads to two major questions: How, and why, do people get from huntingto cultivating? And why do they commit to food production?
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History of Agriculture
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NAMES, PHASES & TIMELINES Phase Subsistence Time Range Upper Palaeolithic / Exclusively Terminal Epipalaeolithic Hunting & Gathering** Pleistocene Mesolithic+ Appearance of sedentary hunter-gatherers Early Holocene* Neolithic* Transition to committed food production Holocene* * timing is very variable ** Foragers manage too, and foraging/collecting aren’t mutually exclusive! 35
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Viewed another way… Humans were hunter-gatherers for 99% of human history!
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Important note on dates There is no single “Neolithic” - there are many! (and some aren’t even called the “Neolithic”) The adoption of agriculture occurs at different times! New research is also challenging or amending these dates (The signs of food production can be very subtle) Some cultures never transition to committed food production
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The Upper Paleolithic 50kya-10kya Groups of foragers/hunter-gatherers roamed the earth People expanded to people Australia (~45kya) and the Americas (~15kya) Groups were generally limited to ~75 people Nomadic No long term, permanent villages or shelters Fairly egalitarian/little conflict as no distinctions in status
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The Mesolithic Approx. 17kya-10kya Extinction of large-game species Shift to broad spectrum collecting Less nomadic populations
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Big Questions Why agriculture? Where, when, and how did it happen? Was it an Agricultural ‘revolution’ or slow, gradual change? What were the positive/negative outcomes of agriculture?
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WHEN? A CHANGE IN CONDITIONS MAY have PROMPTed A CHANGE IN STRATEGY 41
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A CHANGE IN CONDITIONS MAY PROMPT A CHANGE IN STRATEGY
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WARMING TEMPERATURES MEANT MORE BIOMASS (PLANTS & THINGS THAT EAT THEM) Low productivity (Pleistocene: cold, dry, tundra & steppe environments w/ big mobile game animals) • Small populations • Highly mobile Large range High productivity (Holocene: warmer, wetter, more forests & small game) • Smaller ranges • More long-term occupations • Larger populations
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Where? Multiple different INDEPENDANT “origins” of agriculture
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Sites of Animal Domestication
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1) The ‘Fertile Crescent’ Earliest evidence: c. 11,000-10,000 years ago Domesticated wheat / barley
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Natural home to many of what became staple domesticates: barley , wheat , legumes , sheep/goat, pig, cattle .
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2) MESOAMERICA Earliest evidence: c. 7000 years ago Domesticated maize/beans/squash
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Wild vs. domestic corn Teosinte Maize
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3) Highland/ COASTAL Andes Earliest evidence: c. 4000 years ago Domesticated Llama, alpaca, guinea pig, potato & quinoa
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4) China (Yangtze /Yellow Rivers) Earliest evidence: c. 8000 years ago Domesticated Rice & Millet
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How do we “see” the Neolithic Archaeologically The Neolithic package is a series of characteristics thought to accompany the shift to agriculture The neolithic package includes: Domesticates Pottery Ground Stone Tools
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Fertile Crescent - Early evidence ~11,500 ya Tool kits for harvesting & grinding Intensive use of WILD cereals Sites - more permanent Increased social complexity
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THE LEVANT, PRESENT-DAY ISRAEL, PALESTINE, & JORDAN Ohalo II .Hunter-gatherers using cereals as part of mixed, semi- mobile subsistence strategy Image: stone slab with surface worn by grinding. (Dubreuil & Nadel 2015; image ofinferred activity areas inside Hut 1, via Weiss et al. 2– 08)
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Natufians 15,000- 11,500 y.a.
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Natufians • Oak-pistachio woodland • Semi-subterranean brush huts • year-round Occupation • Storage bins • Grinding equipment • Elaborate Burial Neolithic package?
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Barley Wild emmer Acorn Pistachio Almond All these resources are easily stored
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Climate Fluctuations In Natufian Society • Early to Middle Natufian • large villages • Elaborate ornamentation, burials • Late Natufian • Small villages • Few ornaments • Population decline, signs of stress
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NATUFIAN-NEOLITHIC TRANSITION Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (11,500-10,500ya): return to warmer, wetter climate , shifted strategies back to sedentary communities & small local game hunting. Large sedentary communities formed , on wild cereals & hunting wild game (e.g. Ain Mallaha)
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THE NEOLITHIC! • BY 10,300YA,PEOPLE AT JERICHOWERECULTIVATING WHEAT & BARLEY ALONGSIDE HUNTING& GATHERING !
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With the Neolithic…. More Complexity • Very large, dense, planned settlements (1000+ buildings) • Called the Neolithic Demographic transition • Catalhöyük (Turkey), Abu Hureyra (Syria)
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With this came more complex Ceremonial Life Göbekli Tepe (Turkey) 11.6kya Ritual-Only Space Contained monumental Structures Built up and Elaborated over time Shows intensive organization
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And more elaborate mortuary practice Ex. Decorated crania (plaster Heads at Jericho) May represent the emergence of inequality
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Why Was Agriculture Adopted? Oasis Hypothesis V. Gordon Childe Climate change in Fertile Crescent about 10,000 B.P.? Refuted by Robert Braidwood - Jarmo POPULATION HYPOTHESIS • MARK COHEN – HUNTER- GATHERER POPULATION SATURATION ABOUT 10,000 B.P. – BUT DIFFICULT TO PROVE ARCHAEOLOGICALLY • MARVIS HARRIS – INCREASED HUMAN POPULATIONS CAUSED THE DECLINE OF BIG GAME ANIMALS STABILITY AND FEASTING • BRYAN HAYDEN • “K” SPECIES – LIVE LONG TIME, FEW YOUNG, SUSCEPTIBLE TO OVER- EXPLOITATION (EG. DEER) • ”R”SPECIES – REPRODUCE EASILY IN LARGE NUMBERS, RESIST OVEREXPLOITATION, AND EASILY REESTABLISH THEMSELVES (WILD GRASSES) • SWITCHING TO “R” SPECIES WOULD HAVE ENCOURAGED SEDENTISM, STABILIZED FOOD SUPPLY ETC. • STABLE FOOD SUPPLIES ALLOWED FOR EXCESS- FEASTING
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“Anyone considering the problem of agricultural origins has to be impressed by three major categories of evidence; first, we know that world climates changed greatly just before domestication and agriculture first appeared in the Old World; second, world population densities had also been increasing for hundreds of thousands of years before agricultural origins; and third, human technology seems to have been improving in many ways over the whole history of our genus.”
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Agriculture IS not necessarily the next step in human biocultural evolution Many populations did not adopt agriculture Ecology more suited to foraging E.g., Inuit, Ju/’hoansi, pop’ns in tropical rainforests of Amazon Other modes of subsistence are ongoing today
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The Impact of Agriculture Fundamental change in the way humans interact with their environment From dependency on natural resources to control over domesticated resources Major changes in diet Changes in demography, economy, urbanization
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VILLAGE LIFE Domestication = sedentism Investment in architecture Decreased infant mortality = increased population Larger social groups Potential for greater social complexity (>200 people…) Jerf el Ahmar (Syria)
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Social Changes in the Neolithic • More people sharing space • Organizing to build community structures • Pooling labour • Following orders • Motivated by something other than subsistence: • Leadership? • Religious obligation? Gobekli Tepe carved pillar, Wikimedia Commons
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Does Agriculture = Social Complexity? • Intensive food management • Surplus/storage capacities • Sedentism • Commitment to food production • Growing populations • Social & practical adjustments to: large, dense, sedentary, food producing populations
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Why nutritional status might decline with agriculture Dependence on one main crop & potential for crop failure Change in texture and quality of food Uneven food distribution (status)
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Other possible health effects: New opportunities for zoonoses – infectious diseases acquired from animals Sedentism - garbage and human waste accumulate High population densities favour “ herd diseases ” (person person) (e.g. measles, smallpox, etc…) Infectious disease/nutrition synergy
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Skeletal Indicators of Poor Health Increased evidence for nutritional deficiencies Cavities Decreased stature Infant skeleton
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Cribra Orbitalia – iron deficiency anemia
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Iron Deficiency Anemia Normal Porotic hyperostosis
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Dental Caries (= disease) cavities
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Abscess
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Changes in Dental Health Over Time in North America 1000 BP Foragers
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Changes in adult stature (cm) from various skeletal collections from Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Decrease in stature
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Summary • Agricultural ‘revolution’ earliest in the Middle East (approx. 10,000 years ago), but characteristics varied worldwide • Some people did not adopt agriculture • Some costs associated with shift to agriculture • Shift to agriculture may have initially decreased human nutritional status and health • Have to look at both costs and benefits of changes
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