Week 4- Sex & Gender Part II

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Week 4- Sex and Gender Part II Anthropology 1AA3 Beatrice Fletcher
Course Housekeeping • Start working on Assignment #1 • Mandatory academic integrity quiz • Writing Help Center and MODEL • Test #1 will be ONLINE, closed book, and will not require proctoring software- Held October 6 th 8:30am-8:30pm • Live Test #1 Q&A- Thursday September 28 th 6pm-7pm (will be recorded)
McMaster Office for the Development of English Language Learners MODEL is a free service at McMaster developed by ESL and EAP specialists that is dedicated to helping students continue to improve their English-language skills. Targeted skills: • Reading & Writing • Speaking & Listening • Professional, Academic, & Socio- Cultural Services offered: • Workshops • One-on-One Consultations • Language Assessment • Student Advisor “Moving to Canada was the craziest thing I’ve ever done in my life...things started to change when I heard about MODEL…it quickly became an important part of my routine and had a huge impact on my personal and professional life.” Bruno, Faculty of Engineering LR Wilson Hall, 4 th Floor model.mcmaster.ca model@mcmaster.ca @modelmcmaster Contact Us
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Writing Support Center Appointments (Book on Oscar Plus)
What are we covering this lecture? • Recap: Sex/gender readings & Kuma Hina • Cross cultural examples of third genders • What is “Biological Sex” and is it binary? • Sexuality and sexual behaviour
Sex/Gender Part I Recap Anthropology 1AA3
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How does Kumu Hina’s experience resonate with or differ from your own experiences of gender? Hinaleimoana Wong-Kalu
Sex and Gender
Sex & Gender Part II Anthropology 1AA3
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Recall: Gender is… • A folk taxonomy • Preformed • Biocultural But… Is gender binary?
Recall: Gender Inequality
Third and Alternate Genders • “Third genders” is a general anthropological catch-all term for distinct non-cis gender roles • There is a lot of diversity: In some cultures, shifting gender roles is normal • One’s sex does not always correspond with expected gender roles and constructs or identity • Some cultures have institutionalized third genders We’wha (Zuni Native American & Ihamana)
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Third Gender Roles are Diverse Plot of characteristics associated with Two Spirit gender roles among N. American Indigenous Peoples (Land, 1998)
Burrneshat, “Sworn Virgins” • Northern Albania has a strong gendered division of labour and status • Burrneshat are assigned female at birth but assume the social identity of men • “Sworn Virgins” requite an oath of celibacy • Traditionally prescribed by law when all of a clan’s men were killed in feuds Lumia (A burrnesha )
https://youtu.be/1b32j8zGGry
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Hijras • India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal • Assigned male or intersex at birth • Institutionalized as a caste • Gender markers: feminine dress and ceremonial roles • Marginalized in today’s society but recently officially recognized and protected under Indian law Laxmi Narayan Tripathi (Hijra)
Fa’afafine • Samoa • Biological males who dress like women and take on female gender roles/tasks To’oto’oali’l Roger Stanley (A Fa’afafine)
Travestis • Alternate gender sex workers in Brazil • Gender/sex is grounded in acts of anal penetration; “men” and “not men” • Do not identify as women • Use of hormones and silicone Kulik’s Travesti (see text)
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Other Third Genders • Mahu (Hawaii) • Muxes (Mexico) • Xanith (Oman) • Bissu (Indonesia) • Sekrata (Madagascar)
Summary • Some cultures have parallels with Western Trans or nonbinary identities- but not all and not uniformly • There is a lot of cross cultural diversity • Many well-known examples broadly fit into a man- woman duality (e.g. burrneshat “sworn virgins”, muxes, fa’afafine) • Some (e.g. hijras, some 2S roles) are recognized as distinct from man-woman duality • Some identities are conferred (burrneshat); others self-identified (muxes, hijras, travestis) • Some are functional: e.g. among the Crow, people [assigned male] who did not want to become warriors took on feminine roles & dress Caitlin Jenner
Questions?
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Recall: Definitions: Sex • A bodily classification comprising of the configuration of internal and external reproductive anatomy • Sometimes referred to as morphological sex • Usually construed as dichotomous • Generally assigned at birth based on appearance of the external genitalia
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Physical Attributes Typically Associated with “Biological Sex” • Biological sex refers to the physical presentation of Primary and secondary sex characteristics. • Secondary sex characteristics (physical differences not directly related to reproduction) • Primary sex characteristics (external and internal reproductive organs)
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But… are there only males and females? Is the determination of sex a natural binary or a culturally constructed dichotomy?
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How to we get sex? • Developmental Pathway • Chromosomes • Regulatory genes • Hormones (especially androgens and estrogens) • Enzymes • Timing! • Intervention (chemical and/or surgical)
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Sexual Development isn’t a Railroad Track ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------> ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------> XY XX
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Sexual Development is a Process Shaped by Multiple Events Variation in the occurrence, order, timing, and magnitude of inputs during the process of development produces variation in outcomes. Chromosomes Regulatory Genes Hormones Receptors More Hormones ? ? ? ?
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Assigned Sex at Birth • An alternative for “biological sex” • Also known as birth sex, natal sex • These terms acknowledge that: • Bodies are classified at birth • Classification is an act (not an essential state) • Individuals have little agency in their birth assignment • The classification may change
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Differences of Sexual Development (DSD) • Can involve changes anywhere along the pathway from altered chromosomes to altered hormones • May be noticeable at birth, “silent”, emerge at puberty, or only become visible later in life
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Intersex • A general term assigned to conditions normally associated with the presence of both male and female reproductive organs • Can be defined as seeing combinations chromosomal, gonadal, and/or other anatomical features that do not fit into the sex binary • Encompasses a vast range of differences of sexual development .
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Turner’s Syndrome • Affects ~1/2500 females • Chromosomal condition where individuals only possess one X chromosome (XO) • Prevents ovaries from developing properly
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Klinefelter’s Syndrome • Affects ~1/500-1000 males (though many don’t show symptoms) • Chromosomal condition where males have an extra X chromosome (XXY) • Reductions in testosterone and produce little to no sperm
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Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia • XX, with ambiguous genitals • Adrenal glands produce androgens (male sex hormones in all of us) • In a typical body, androgens are converted to other hormones by enzymes • CAH bodies do not produce that enzyme, leading to elevated androgens and altered reproductive tract development.
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Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome • XY, sometimes with male & female structures • Typical Y chromosome; body produces androgens but lacks masculinizing response • Variable manifestations • Complete form results in female anatomy indistinguishable from an XX female
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Medical Framing of DSDs/Intersex Individuals • DSD designations are based on a Western set of ideas • In other cultural contexts, visible DSDs may be understood differential (ex. normal or supernatural variations of human bodies) • The categorizations of DSDs/intersex people have tangible consequences
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Caster Semenya • Intersex middle-distance runner • Assigned female at birth, has elevated testosterone levels due to internal testes • Should she be allowed to compete in women’s events? • Does her condition afford her unfair advantages? • Is the real problem with our system of classification?
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Anne Fausto-Sterling • Wrote “The five sexes: why male and female are not enough” (1993) • Notes that “Western culture is deeply committed to the idea that there are only two sexes” • Notes that this binary system that is enforced by written law, medical practice etc. • Argues that sex is “a vast, infinitely malleable continuum” • Proposes 5 clinical sexes (male, merm, herm, ferm, and female)- but notes that these are inadequate!
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Biopower • Michel Foucault’s concept, referring to the monitoring and management of populations by governments • Applies directly to Fausto-Sterling’s arguments as different bodies are regulated to conformity
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Why was Fausto- Sterling’s Work Important? 20 th century Western medicine sought to “correct” intersex bodies through surgery and interventions Fausto-Sterling argues that medicalization and surgical erasure reinforces social stigma
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Sexuality • Sex is an important aspect of human social behaviour • All societies have some rules governing “proper” conduct, but what that conduct is varies • Examples: Premarital sex: Trobriand Islanders and Samoans; most societies have an incest taboo, although this varies in meaning and form (eg. under Marriage Act in Canada, an individual is prohibited from marrying their brother or sister (full or half), children, grandparents, parents. • Sex is often understood and practices outside of the framework of reproduction (p.100)
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Sexual Behaviour • What constitutes sexual behaviour may vary • Some practices include • Kissing • Foreplay • Oral Sex • Anal Contact • Face to face vs. other positions
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Sexual Practices Vary Ex. permissiveness/restrictiveness • These are norms of when, how often, and with whom sexual activities are permitted • Mead established that adolescents of all genders had premarital sex in Samoa (1930’s) • Contemporary N. America • Purity pledges • Hook-up culture
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Aka • Hewlett & Hewlett report that the rainforest Aka people referred to sex entirely in the context of reproduction. (Work, but pleasurable work.) • The Hewletts’ informants stated that they were unfamiliar with masturbation and same-sex sexual activity
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Sexual Behaviour and Practice Outside of the Cis/Het “norm” • You are likely familiar with lesbian, gay, and bisexual relationships among people of all genders • Same sex and nonbinary sexual behaviour is present in many different cultures and in non-human species • Same-sex and other non-hetero sexual relationships may have social or ritual meanings outside of conventional romantic or domestic relationships
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Same-sex practices in “Making Men” • Examples from the text: Ethnic groups from Papua New Guinea & Island Oceania: “Sambia, Etoro, Keraki • Boys engage in sexual practices with adult men as part of a manhood initation • Explained as a way to “make” boys into men, erase the feminizing influence of women • More frequent in societies with marked sex segregation
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Same-sex practices in “Making Men” • Classical Greece (mythology and history) • Adult men, mentoring adolescent boys in social and sexual adulthood • Prominent in military mythologies (eg. Theban 300; Achilles and Patroclus)
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Binary Subverting Sexualities • Travestis, people assigned male & self-identify as “feminine” (viado) • Use female pronouns, engage in body modification, prefer heterosexual partners • Do not consider themselves “women” or “men” • Sexual identity is role-specific: defined by who penetrates (the man), and who is penetrated (the non-man, woman or viado)
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Where are the Queer Women? Notice: your textbook has very little to say about women’s sexuality, especially same-sex & nonbinary practices. Why might this be?
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In Sum • Default framing of sexual relationships as cisgender, heterosexual and reproductive is heteronormative • Sexual behaviour is often not: • Reproductive • Domestic • Monogamous • Private • Romantic (that framing is culturally specific)
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Summary • The roles/experiences of third genders vary substantially cross-culturally • Third genders uniquely experience gender inequality • Sex is a bodily classification usually based on the appearance of primary and secondary sex characteristics • The perceived dichotomy of sex is subverted by multiple examples of intersex people • Fausto-Sterling argues that sex should also be understood as a continuum • Sexuality, an important social behaviour, varies cross-culturally • Sexuality is often subjected to rules/restrictions
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