A&P EXAM 1 REVIEW GUIDE. 2023
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Upper Cape Cod Regional Technical School *
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PN 103
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Anatomy
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Jan 9, 2024
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PN 103 Anatomy & Physiology EXAM #1 Review Guide
SCHMITT/Fall 2023
Chapter 1: Orientation to the Human Body
Define the terms anatomy, physiology, & pathophysiology.
Describe the organization of the body from the very simple to the very complex.
Name the 11 organ systems and identify key function of each.
Name at least two organs within each organ system and in which quadrant they can be found
Define anatomical position
Explain the major body cavities and the membranes
Identify planes and abdominal regions
Define homeostasis and explain the mechanisms of homeostatic regulation
Chapter 2: Chemistry of Life
Discuss the terms element, atom, molecules, and bonds
Define the terms metabolism, catabolism and anabolism
Name the organic compounds
Recognize the chemical symbols for the main elements in the human body
Describe the function of water in the human body
Differentiate between compounds, mixtures, and describe the three types of mixtures
Compare acids, bases, and pH
Discuss the types and functions of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in the body
Explain the structure of ATP, its role in the body
Chapter 3: Cells
Name the basic structures of the human cell and their functions
Plasma Membrane: Boundary of the cell. Phospholipids “hydrophobic core”, cholesterol “stiffer and strengthen”, proteins “most pass all the way thru. Channels for solutes in/out” “some attach to surface. Receptors for hormones/chems” “many have carbs attached as markers to recognize own body cells”. Selective permeability.
Nucleus: Central and most important part of the cell. Nuclear Envelope “double layer membrane surrounding nucleus”, Nuclear Pores “holes in NE, regulate molecules in/out nucleus”. Nucleoplasm “stuff filling nucleus”” full of chromatin that are filled with DNA and turn into chromosomes” Nucleolus “center of nucleus, makes ribosomes that make protein”
Cytoplasm & Organelles: the gel-like substance that fills the space between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. Endoplasmic reticulum, smooth makes lipids and carbs, rough makes proteins. Golgi Apparatus, gets proteins from the ER and packs and sends throughout the body. Centrioles, microtubules help w cell division. Lysosomes made from G.A., enzymes get rid of proteins the body doesn’t want/need “cellular garbage disposals”. Mitochondria “the powerhouse of the cell. ATP.”
Cytoskeleton: supporting framework of the cell. State the functions of the nucleus chromosomes and genetic codes
Genes and DNA
Differentiate between and describe the function of Microvilli, Cilia, and Flagella
Microvilli “folds of PM, increase surface area”. Cilia, “hair-like and move in waves”. Flagella: sperm. Define diffusion, osmosis, filtration, facilitated diffusion active transport, and phagocytosis
Diffusion:
movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
Osmosis:
diffusion of water down the concentration gradient through a selectively permeable
membrane
Filtration:
water and dissolved particles are forced across a membrane from an area of higher to lower hydrostatic pressure
Facilitated Diffusion: Particles move from an area of high to low concentration with the help of a channel protein that’s
part of the plasma membrane.
Active Transport: solutes move up the concentration gradient—from areas of lesser to greater concentration (sodium-
potassium pump)
Phagocytosis: occurs when the cell engulfs a solid particle and brings it into the cell.
Provide examples of diffusion and osmosis
Diffusion: placing a dye tablet in water, As the tablet dissolves, the particles move away from the tablet (where concentration is high) to the edges of the container (where the concentration of particles is low). Diffusion continues until the particles are evenly distributed.
Osmosis: The membrane in the container above is separating a 5% albumin solution (side A) from a 10% albumin solution (side B). The membrane is permeable to water but not to albumin. Side A contains more water molecules in relation to albumin molecules. Therefore, the concentration of water is greater on side A compared with side B.
Water
molecules move from side A—the side with a higher concentration of water (and lower concentration of albumin)—to side B—the side with the lower concentration of water (and the higher concentration of albumin). The concentration of
the two solutions eventually equalizes. But, in the process, side B ends up with a greater volume of water.
Describe the function of DNA and RNA
One of DNA’s main functions is to provide information for building proteins However, DNA is too large to leave the nucleus, and protein synthesis takes place in the cytoplasm. Therefore, DNA needs help from another nucleic acid-
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Describe the difference between mitosis and meiosis
Sex cells divide by meiosis and not mitosis
Chapter 4: Human Microbiome
Discuss the human microbiome
The trillions of microorganisms living on and in the human body play a key role in regulating metabolism, immune function, and even behavior.
Identify factors that boost microbiome diversity or that can threaten the health of the microbiome
The first step in building a microbiome seems to occur before a child is born. After birth, the microbiome expands as the newborn picks up bacteria from his or her immediate environment. Good: Consumption of a high-fiber, plant-based diet. Eating foods rich in polyphenols.
Taking probiotics. Consuming prebiotics. Eating fermented foods. Exercising. Spending time outdoors. Avoiding unnecessary antibiotics.
Bad: Antibiotic use may be the most significant culprit in microbiome disruption. A high-fat, high-sugar diet. Stress. Smoking. Air pollution. Sedentary lifestyle. Overuse of sanitizing products. Invasion by disease-causing bacteria.
Identify the structural components of bacteria and viruses
Bacteria—the chief inhabitants of the microbiome—are single-celled microscopic organisms. They come in a variety of shapes and sizes and are found practically everywhere on earth.
Viruses are extremely small infectious agents. Viruses are not cells. They can’t metabolize nutrients, produce or excrete wastes, or move around independently. They can’t even reproduce on their own; to do so, they must be inside a host cell.
Explain the microbiomes relationship to health
There is no doubt that the trillions of microorganisms living on and in the human body are essential for normal body
function. These microbes digest food, absorb nutrients, prime the immune system, produce vitamins, play a key role in energy production, guard against disease-causing bacteria, and even influence mental health. It’s important to realize that the trillions of microorganisms comprising the microbiome contain genetic material that
works with, or competes against, your own genes to influence health. In fact, scientists now agree that human health is a function of human and microbial cells working together.
Chapter 5: Tissues
Discuss the importance of stem cells
Can differentiate into many different types of cells. Researchers have sought to harness this trait for treatment of diseases resulting from loss of functional cells
Describe the basic characteristics of each major category of tissues
Epithelial tissue: continuous sheet of tightly packed cells; it covers the body’s surface, lines body cavities and many organs, and forms certain glands. Key functions involve protection, absorption, filtration, and secretion. Simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar, stratified squamous, transitional
Connective Tissue: connect the body together and to support, bind, or protect organs. Most widespread, most varied. (Dense fibrous;; cartilage [hyaline, elastic, fibro], blood, bone) (reticular, adipose, areolar;; loose fibrous connective)
Nervous tissue: Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, nerve tissue consists of two types of cells: Neurons, the units that conduct nervous impulses. Neuroglia, which protect and assist neurons
Muscle tissue: Skeletal (long, thin cells, striated, voluntary), Cardiac (found only in the heart. shorter than those of skeletal muscle. joined together with junctions called intercalated discs. involuntary), Smooth (long, spindle-shaped cells. Involuntary)
Describe the location and function of membranes found in the body
epithelial membranes: mucous membranes (Mucous membranes line body surfaces that open directly to the body’s exterior, such as the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts), cutaneous membranes (Known as the skin, this is the body’s largest membrane. It consists of a layer of epithelium resting on a layer of connective tissue), and serous membranes (Composed of simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue, serous membranes line some of the closed body cavities and also cover many of the organs in those cavities. Secrete serous fluid)
connective tissue membranes:
Some joints are lined by membranes made of connective tissue. For example, synovial membranes line the spaces between bones, where they secrete synovial fluid to prevent friction during movement
Describe and compare differences of skeletal, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle tissues
Skeletal (long, thin cells, striated, voluntary), Cardiac (found only in the heart. shorter than those of skeletal muscle. joined together with junctions called intercalated discs. involuntary), Smooth (long, spindle-shaped cells. Involuntary)
Differentiate between regeneration and fibrotic tissue repair
Regeneration occurs when damaged tissue cells are replaced with the same type of cells, resulting in functional new
tissue. Most injuries to the skin, such as cuts and scrapes, heal by regeneration.
Fibrosis occurs when damaged tissue is replaced with scar tissue, which is composed mainly of collagen. Although scar tissue binds the edges of a wound together, it doesn’t restore normal function. Severe cuts or burns heal through
fibrosis.
Explain the function of various membranes in the human body.
epithelial membranes: mucous membranes (Mucous membranes line body surfaces that open directly to the body’s exterior, such as the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts), cutaneous membranes (Known as the skin, this is the body’s largest membrane. It consists of a layer of epithelium resting on a layer of connective tissue), and serous membranes (Composed of simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue, serous membranes line some of the closed body cavities and also cover many of the organs in those cavities. Secrete serous fluid)
connective tissue membranes: Some joints are lined by membranes made of connective tissue. For example, synovial membranes line the spaces between bones, where they secrete synovial fluid to prevent friction during movement
Chapter 6: Integumentary System
Name the major layers of the skin including the subcutaneous tissue
Describe the types of cells found in each skin layer
Describe the functions of the skin and appendages
Differentiate between the various cells and glands found in the skin
Identify the stages of burns
Chapter 7: Bones & Bone Tissue
Describe the functions of the bones
Name the types of bone tissue
Explain bone classification
Identify major bones of the body.
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Discuss embryonic bone growth
Name the factors that affect growth and maintenance
Describe the types fractures and repair process
Chapter 8: Skeletal System
Describe the functions of the skull, vertebral column, rib cage, and pelvic bones
Chapter 9: Joints
Identify the joints
Describe the classification of joints
Explain the function and movement of joints
Discuss the function of synovial fluid.
SUGGESTIONS:
Review/utilize workbook, lecture slides, recordings and assignment diagrams.
Know your lefts and rights. Yours vs. your patient’s left/right
FOCUS TIPS:
Anatomical position
What is an organ system
Blood pH 7.35-7.45. Why is it important for human blood to be in that pH range.
slight deviations of pH can seriously disrupt normal body function
Body cavities p. 10 Note location of diaphragm
ventral cavity (at the front of the body): thoracic, abdominopelvic (separated by diaphragm)
dorsal cavity (at the rear of the body): cranial, spinal
Understand: osmosis, diffusion, active/passive transport , facilitate diffusion.
Diffusion: movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
Osmosis: diffusion of water down the concentration gradient through a selectively permeable
membrane
Filtration: water and dissolved particles are forced across a membrane from an area of higher to lower hydrostatic pressure
Facilitated Diffusion: Particles move from an area of high to low concentration with the help of a channel protein that’s
part of the plasma membrane.
Active Transport: solutes move up the concentration gradient—from areas of lesser to greater concentration (sodium-
potassium pump)
Active transport p. 45 ATP energy is needed to transport molecules across a membrane
solutes move up the concentration gradient—from areas of lesser to greater concentration. Just like swimming upstream, moving against the concentration gradient requires energy, which is provided in the form of ATP. Active transport mechanisms include transport by pumps and transport by vesicles
Know MAJOR ELEMENTS symbols : p 18
Oxygen O
Carbon C
Hydrogen H
Nitrogen N
Calcium Ca
Phosphorus P
Know LESSER ELEMENTS symbols: p. 18
Sulfur S
Potassium K
Sodium Na
Chlorine Cl
Magnesium Mg
Iron Fe
Cilia,microvilli
Microvilli “folds of PM, increase surface area”. Cilia, “hair-like and move in waves”.
Define homeostasis
The state of dynamic equilibrium of the internal environment of the body
What is DNA/ RNA
What is..matter,element,compound,solution
Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space
Element: A substance that cannot be separated into substances different from itself
Compound: Chemical combination of two or more elements
Solution: A liquid mixture in which the minor component (the solute) is evenly distributed within the more abundant substance (the solvent)
Proteins p 31 importance of enzymes …review the purple dots
Keratin gives strength to nails, hair, and skin surface.
Collagen lends structure to bones, cartilage, and teeth.
Antibodies defend the body against bacteria.
Enzymes act as catalysts for crucial chemical reactions.
Contractile proteins promote muscle contraction.
Hemoglobin carries oxygen in the blood.
Hormones, such as insulin, serve as chemical messengers to cells throughout the body.
Negative/Positive feedback
Negative feedback: when the effector opposes the stimulus and reverses the direction of change
Positive feedback: when the effector reinforces the stimulus and amplifies the direction of change
Metabolism p 23 first sentence,
The sum of all the chemical reactions in the body is called metabolism
Body at Work P 66 first sentence
Experts have long maintained that infectious disease occurs when a microorganism known to cause disease (called a
pathogen) invades the human body through a portal of entry.
pH scale p 28
The acidity or alkalinity of a substance is expressed in terms of pH. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Less than 7 is acidic.7 neutral. 7+ is basic.
Characteristics of water p 25
Water is a solvent—Water dissolves more substances than any other liquid.
Water is a lubricant—Water clings to the body’s tissues and forms a lubricating film on membranes.
Water changes temperature slowly—Water can absorb and release large amounts of heat without changing temperature
Human microbiome, disruption causes of microbiome, building microbiome p 61 fast facts
Infants delivered by cesarean section—and who, therefore, lack many microbes routinely passed from mother to child
—have a significantly increased risk of developing asthma, systemic connective tissue disorders, juvenile arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, immune deficiencies, leukemia, and Crohn disease. Because children acquire significant
components of their microbiomes from their mothers, some experts theorize that diseases that appear to be genetic, but whose causative genes can’t be located, really are heritable; it’s just that the genes causing the disease are bacterial.
The trillions of microorganisms living on and in the human body play a key role in regulating metabolism, immune function, and even behavior.
The first step in building a microbiome seems to occur before a child is born. After birth, the microbiome expands as the newborn picks up bacteria from his or her immediate environment. Good: Consumption of a high-fiber, plant-based diet. Eating foods rich in polyphenols. Taking probiotics. Consuming prebiotics. Eating fermented foods. Exercising. Spending time outdoors. Avoiding unnecessary antibiotics.
Bad: Antibiotic use may be the most significant culprit in microbiome disruption. A high-fat, high-sugar diet. Stress. Smoking. Air pollution. Sedentary lifestyle. Overuse of sanitizing products. Invasion by disease-causing bacteria.
Blood extracellular matric
Plasma
Skeletal/cardiac/smooth muscle….voluntary or involuntary
Skeletal voluntary
Cardiac involuntary
Smooth involuntary
Types of Membranous Epithelial Tissue p 77 super power of trans. Epithelium
Consists of multiple cell layers. Urinary tract. When stretched, cell layers decrease and cell
shape changes from cuboidal to squamous
Epithelial shapes
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar
Exocrine. Endocrine gland
Exocrine: Secrete their products into ducts, Sweat, tears, gastric juices, sweat glands secrete sweat, which flows through ducts onto the skin’s surface
Endocrine: Ductless glands, secrete hormones directly into the blood, Adrenal glands secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream
Stem cells Life lesson p 85
Can differentiate into many types of cells. Researchers have sought to harness trait for treatment of some diseases. Typically involves harvesting stem cells from human embryo 3-5 days old. Come from embryos that were fertilized in invitro fertilization clinics but never used instead of destroying are donated. Adults stem cells have limited capacity to divide making generation of large quantities of stem cells difficult. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). A way to reprogram adult stem cells to become like embryonic stem cells. Umbilical cord blood can be a source of stem cells. Blood-forming stem cells and are being used to treat blood disorders
Burns
First-degree: only the epidermis. redness swelling pain. results from sunlight (sunburn)
Second-degree: epidermis as well as part of the dermis. Blisters, severe pain, swelling. May result in scarring. May appear red/white/tan
Third-degree: through the epidermis & dermis into subcutaneous tissue. May not be painful initially because of the destruction of nerve endings. May appear white or black & leathery. Often requires skin graft
Skin changes, thermoregulation associated with aging
As you get older it becomes harder for body to control temp. Decrease in amount of fat below skin makes harder to stay warm. Sweating capacity and skin blood flow reduce with age. Reducing ability to dissipate heat
What is …Collagen, Keratin
Collagen: most abundant protein in body. Protein molecules made up of amino acids
Keratin: Protein that helps form hair nails and skins outer layer (epidermis)
Parts of long bone p 103 green box, blue box
The inside of the medullary cavity is lined with a thin epithelial membrane called the endosteum. In children, the medullary cavity is filled with blood cell-producing red bone marrow. In adults, most of this marrow has turned to yellow A dense fibrous membrane called the periosteum covers the diaphysis. Some of the fibers of the periosteum penetrate the bone, ensuring that the membrane stays firmly anchored. Other fibers of the periosteum weave together with the fibers of tendons. (Tendons attach muscle to bone.) This arrangement ensures a strong connection between muscle and bone. The periosteum contains bone-forming cells as well as blood vessels, making its presence crucial for bone survival.
Fractures, Fractures in kids. Simple: Bone remains aligned and the surrounding tissue is intact
Compound: Bone pierces skin. Damage to surrounding tissue, nerves, and blood vessels may be
Extensive. Increased risk of infection
Greenstick: Fracture is incomplete. Typically occurs in young children where bones are softer more flexible than adult
bones causing bone to splinter rather than break
Comminuted: Bone breaks into pieces (shattered)
Spiral: Fracture line spirals around the bone
skull bones; frontal parietal occipital
frontal: front, 1
parietal: sides, 2
occipital: back, 1
Sinuses p 122 Maxillary sinus: maxilla area
Ethmoid sinus: inner eye, either side of nose bridge
Frontal sinus: mid-eyebrow
Sphenoid sinus: behind ethmoid sinuses
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Synovial joints, epiphyseal plates
Synovial joints: Synovial joints—also called diarthroses—are freely movable. They’re also the most numerous and versatile of all the body’s joints. Synovial fluid: Slippery, viscous fluid that lubricates synovial joints. Synovial membrane: Specialized connective tissue lining the inner surface of the joint capsule in a synovial joint
Epiphyseal plates: In growing children, a layer of cartilage, called the epiphyseal plate or
growth plate, separates the epiphysis from the diaphysis at each end of a
long bone
Vitamin D and skin
Initiates the production of vitamin D when exposed to ultraviolet light