A&P EXAM 2 REVIEW GUIDE. 2023

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PN 103 Anatomy and Physiology EXAM #2 Study Guide Schmitt FALL 2023 CHAPTER 10 Muscular System Differentiate between the different types of muscles Cardiac: Found only in the heart. Consists of short, branching fibers that fit together at intercalated discs Striated Involuntary Smooth: Found in the digestive tract, blood vessels, bladder, airways, and uterus Nonstriated Involuntary Skeletal: Attached to bone and causes movement of the body Striated Voluntary Describe the skeletal muscle structure Muscle cell called muscle fibers. Covered in Endomysium (connective tissue). In bundles called Fascicles. Fascicles covered in tougher connective tissue called Perimysium. Vascular & innervated. Fascicle bunds covered and held together by Epimysium. Epimysium covered in Fascia. Deep fascia is between muscles, Superficial fascia (aka hypodermis) is under the skin. Briefly describe muscle contraction and relaxation 1. Electrical impulse causes small vesicles at the end of the motor neuron to fuse with the cell membrane/wall and release ACh into the synaptic cleft. 2. The ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft, where it stimulates receptors in the sarcolemma 3. An electrical impulse travel over the sarcolemma and inward along the T tubules causing the sacs in the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium. 4. Ca binds with the troponin on the actin filament to expose attachment points.

5. Myosin heads of the thick filaments grab onto the thin filaments, and muscle contraction occurs. 6. ACh is no longer released. The enzyme acetylcholinesterase breaks down any remaining ACh 7. Calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 8. Troponin and tropomyosin again prevent the myosin heads from grasping the thin filament, and the muscle fiber relaxes. Explain the importance of muscle tone Muscle tone is what allows you to stand, hold up your head, and maintain your posture. Having your muscles in a partial state of contraction also allows you to react quickly to a dangerous situation Discuss the differences between isotonic and isometric exercises Isometric contraction: the tension within a muscle increase while its length remains the same. Isotonic contractions: muscle changes length and moves a load, tension in the muscle remains the same. Discuss the energy sources for contraction Aerobic respiration: break down fatty acids for energy (with oxygen) – AT REST Breaking down creatine phosphate (CP), stored in the muscle – START OF EXERCISE Anaerobic respiration: break down glucose in the bloodstream and glycogen in the muscle. Produces lactic acid, which leads to muscle fatigue. – 10 MINS OF EXERCISE After 10 mins of continuous exercise, lungs catch up and aerobic respiration resumes Discuss the major muscles of the body and their function Frontalis: Raises the eyebrows Orbicularis oculi: A sphincter muscle that closes the eye Zygomaticus: Draws the mouth upward Orbicularis oris: Closes the mouth and purses the lips Buccinator: Assists in smiling and blowing as well as chewing Temporalis: Aids in closing the jaw Masseter: Closes the jaw Sternocleidomastoid: Flexes the head, rotates the head to the side when only one muscle contracts

Trapezius: Extends the head (looking upward) and flexes the head to one side; elevates the shoulder External intercostals: Lie superficially between ribs; elevate the ribs during inspiration Internal intercostals: Lie deeper than the external intercostals; depress the ribs during forced exhalation Diaphragm: Enlarges the thorax to trigger inspiration External oblique: Compresses the abd organs; aids in forceful expiration, vomiting, and defecation; also allows flexion of the vertebral column and rotation and lateral bending of the trunk Rectus abdominis: Flexes the lumbar region of the spinal column to cause bending forward at the waist; extends from the sternum to the pubic bone Transversus abdominis: Compresses the contents of the abd Internal oblique: Stabilizes the spine and maintains posture, also permits rotation of the waist Deltoid: Abducts, flexes, and rotates the arm; involved in swinging the arm (walking or bowling); also raises the arm to perform tasks, such as writing on an elevated surface Pectoralis major: Flexes and adducts the upper arm, such as when climbing or hugging Serratus anterior: Drives all forward-reaching and pushing movements; pulls the shoulder down and forward Trapezius: Raises and lowers the shoulders; stabilizes the scapula during arm movements Latissimus dorsi: Adducts the humerus; extends the upper arm backward, serves to pull the body upward when grasping an object overhead Rotator cuff: The tendons of four muscles (attached to the scapula) form the rotator cuff: supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis (on the anterior scapula). Nicknamed the “SITS” muscles the tendons of these muscles fuse with the joint capsule and form a “cuff” around the shoulder joint, helping to hold the head of the humerus in place. Brachialis: The prime mover when flexing the forearm Biceps brachii: Assists the brachialis when flexing the forearm; also flexes the elbow and supinates the forearm Triceps brachii: The prime mover when extending the forearm Brachioradialis: Helps the brachialis and the biceps brachii flex the forearm Pronator muscles allow the arm to pronate (palms down). A supinator muscle—not visible here—lies deep in the forearm near the elbow; it joins forces with the biceps brachii to allow supination Iliopsoas flex the thigh: Iliacus & Psoas major Sartorius: longest muscle in the body. Aids in flexion of hip & knee. Abducts & laterally rotates the thigh

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Adductor muscles: rotate and draw the thigh in toward the body. Adductor magnus, Adductor brevis, Adductor longus, Gracilis Quadriceps femoris: Most powerful muscle in the body, prime mover for knee extension. Vastus intermedius, Rectus femoris, Vastus lateralis, Vastus medialis Gluteus medius: Abducts and rotates thigh outward Gluteus maximus: Bulkiest muscle in the body; produces the backswing of the leg when walking and provides most of the power for climbing stairs Gluteus minimus: lies beneath the other two gluteal muscles, assists gluteus medius in abducting the thigh when the leg is extended; Aids in both internally and externally rotating the thigh Hamstrings: group of muscles which work to extend the thigh at the hip, flex the knee, and rotate the leg. Biceps femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus Calf muscles: Gastrocnemius, Soleus. Contraction of these muscles causes plantar flexion of the foot Extensor digitorum longus and Tibialis anterior: dorsiflex the foot. Extensor digitorum longus extends the toes and turns the foot outward CHAPTER 11 Nervous System State the general functions of the nervous system Constantly receives signals about changes within the body and external environment Processes info and decides what action needs to occur Sends electrical and chemical signals to cells, telling them how to respond Powers our ability to learn, feel, create, and experience emotion. Name the divisions of the nervous system and the parts of each Central nervous system (CNS): Brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Sensory/afferent division (Somatic sensory, Visceral sensory), Motor/efferent division (Somatic motor, Autonomic motor [Sympathetic division, Parasympathetic division]) Describe the types of neurons and neuroglia Neurons: Nerve cells Sensory/afferent neurons: detect stimuli, and transmit info about the stimuli to the CNS

Interneurons: connect incoming sensory pathways with outgoing motor pathways. Besides receiving, processing, and storing info, the connections made by these neurons make each of us unique in how we think, feel, and act. – CNS Motor/efferent neurons: relay messages from the brain to the muscle or gland cells Multipolar neurons: one axon and multiple dendrites. The most common type of neuron; includes most neurons of the brain and spinal cord. Bipolar neurons: two processes, axon & dendrite w the cell body in between. In retina & olfactory nerve. Unipolar neurons: One process, axon; extends from cell body before branching in a T shape. In the sensory nerves of the PNS. Neuroglia/Glial Cells: Oligodendrocytes: Form myelin sheath in the brain and spinal cord; speed signal conduction – CNS Ependymal cells: Line spinal cord and cavities of the brain; some secrete cerebrospinal fluid; some have cilia that aid fluid circulation – CNS Microglia: Perform phagocytosis, engulfing microorganisms and cellular debris – CNS Astrocytes: Extend through brain tissue; nourish neurons; help form blood-brain barrier; attach neurons to blood vessels; provide structural support – CNS Schwann cells: Form myelin sheath around nerves; form neurilemma – PNS Identify the structures and function of the neuron cell body AKA soma: control center of the neuron; contains the nucleus Dendrites: receive signals from other neurons and conduct the info to the cell body. Some neurons have only one dendrite; others have thousands. Axon: carries nerve signals away from cell body, longer than dendrites and contains few branches. Only one axon; length of the fiber can range from a few millimeters to as much as a meter. Myelin sheath: axons of many (not all) neurons are encased in it. Mostly lipid, myelin insulates the axon. In PNS, Schwann cells form the myelin sheath. In CNS, oligodendrocytes assume this role. Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in the myelin sheath, occur at evenly spaced intervals Synaptic knob: knobs at the end of the terminals on the branched end of the axon. Within the synaptic knobs are vesicles containing a neurotransmitter. Differentiate conduction differences in myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers

Unmyelinated fibers conduct nerve impulses more slowly. These perform functions in which speed isn’t essential, such as stimulating the secretion of stomach acid. Nerve fibers stimulating skeletal muscles, where speed is more important, are myelinated. State the names and numbers of the spinal nerves and their destinations 8 cervical nerves (C1-C8). 12 thoracic nerves (T1-T12). 5 lumbar nerves (L1-L5). 5 sacral nerves (S1-S5). 1 coccygeal nerve (Co) Cervical plexus : supply the muscles and skin of the neck, tops of the shoulders, and part of the head. The phrenic nerve, which stimulates the diaphragm for breathing, is located here. Brachial plexus : innervates lower part of shoulder and arm. Key nerves: axillary nerve, radial nerve, ulnar nerve, and median nerve. Lumbar plexus : first four lumbar vertebrae; supplies the thigh and leg. Femoral nerve. Sacral plexus : nerves L4, L5, and S1-S4. (Because of the co-mingling of fibers of the sacral plexus with those of the lumbar plexus, these two plexuses are often referred to as the lumbosacral plexus.) Sciatic nerve, largest nerve in the body, arises here and runs down the back of the thigh. Discuss the structure and divisions of the brain and their functions Brainstem : Consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata Midbrain : Relay sensory and motor impulses. Auditory and visual reflexes, muscle control. Pons : Convey signals to and from different parts of the brain. Medulla oblongata : Attaches brain to spinal cord. Relays sensory and motor signals b/w brain & spinal cord. Contains: Cardiac center, regulates heart rate. Vasomotor center controls blood vessel diameter - blood pressure. 2 respiratory centers regulate breathing. Reflex centers for coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting. Cerebellum : Back of brain. Receives & processes msgs from all over the brain. Motor functions. Sensory, cognitive, and emotional functions. W cerebral cortex, monitors body movements, sends msgs for balance, coordination, and posture. Stores info for muscle groups to work together to perform smooth, efficient, and coordinated movements. Evaluates sensory input. Diencephalon : region deep inside the brain consisting of several structures, with the chief ones being the thalamus and the hypothalamus Thalamus : Shaped like two eggs sitting side by side, on the top of the brainstem. Gateway for nearly every sensory impulse travelling to the cerebral cortex. Processes and filters impulses, transmitting some – not all, to cerebral cortex. Relays msgs regarding complex movements. Involved in memory and emotion.

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Hypothalamus : tiny area of the brain. Controls ANS. Responsible for hunger, thirst, and temp regulation. Controls pituitary gland. Emotional responses Cerebrum : Largest portion of the brain. Contains Parietal lobe, Frontal lobe, Temporal lobe, Occipital lobe, Insula. Frontal lobe : Central sulcus forms the posterior boundary. Voluntary movements, memory, emotion, social judgment, decision making, reasoning, and aggression; certain aspects of one’s personality Parietal lobe : Central sulcus forms the anterior boundary. Receiving and interpreting bodily sensations; proprioception Occipital lobe : Analyzing and interpreting visual info Temporal lobe : Separated from the parietal lobe by the lateral sulcus. Hearing, smell, learning, memory, emotional behavior, and visual recognition Insula : Hidden behind lateral sulcus. Perception of pain, basic emotions, addiction, motor control, self-awareness, and cognitive functioning The Limbic System : Seat of emotion and learning. Structures that encircle the corpus callosum and thalamus. Links areas of the lower brainstem w areas in the cerebral cortex. Hippocampus & amygdala. Hippocampus : Converts short-term memory into long-term memory. Amygdala : Two almond-shaped masses of neurons on either side of the thalamus; Concerned with emotions; Stores and recalls, emotions from past events. State the names and numbers of the cranial nerves and their destinations Olfactory nerve (I, sensory): Governs sense of smell. Terminates in olfactory bulbs in the cribriform plate, just above the nasal cavity Optic nerve (II, sensory): Concerned with vision. Links the retina to the brain’s visual cortex Oculomotor nerve ((III mainly motor): controls pupil constriction, regulates voluntary movements of the eyelid and eyeball Trochlear nerve (IV mainly motor): regulates voluntary movements of the eyelid and eyeball Trigeminal nerve (V, two sensory and one mixed branch): Sensory branches (ophthalmic and maxillary) sense touch, temp, and pain on the eye, face, and teeth; mixed branch (mandibular) controls chewing and detects sensations in the lower jaw. Ophthalmic branch triggers the corneal reflex: blinking in response to a light touch on the eyeball Abducens nerve (VI mainly motor): regulates voluntary movements of the eyelid and eyeball Facial nerve (VII, mixed): Sensory portion concerned with taste; motor portion controls facial expression and secretion of tears and saliva

Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII, sensory): Concerned with hearing and balance Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX, mixed): Motor fibers govern tongue movements, swallowing, and gagging. Sensory fibers handle taste, touch, and temperature from the tongue; also concerned with regulation of blood pressure Vagus nerve (X, mixed): Longest and most widely distributed cranial nerve. Supplies organs in the head and neck as well as those in the thoracic and abd cavities. Plays key role in many heart, lung, digestive, and urinary functions Spinal accessory nerve (XI, mainly motor): Controls movement in the head, neck, and shoulders Hypoglossal nerve (XII, mainly motor): Controls tongue movements Discuss the divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System and their effects Sympathetic Division AKA thoracolumbar division: Increases alertness  Increases heart rate  Dilates bronchial tubes to increase air flow in the lungs  Dilates blood vessels of skeletal muscles to increase blood flow  Inhibits intestinal motility  Stimulates secretion of thick salivary mucus  Stimulates sweat glands  Stimulates adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine  No effect on the urinary bladder or internal sphincter  “Fight or flight”  Originates in thoracolumbar region  Ganglia lie in chain alongside spinal cord  Short preganglionic and long postganglionic fiber  Employs mostly norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter (occasionally uses ACh)  Produces widespread, generalized effects Parasympathetic Division AKA craniosacral division: Has a calming effect  Decreases heart rate  Constricts bronchial tubes to decrease air flow in lungs  No effect on blood vessels of skeletal muscles  Stimulates intestinal motility and secretion to promote digestion  Stimulates secretion of thin salivary mucus  No effect on sweat glands  No effect on adrenal medulla  Stimulates the bladder wall to contract and the internal sphincter to relax to cause urination  “Resting and digesting”  Originates in craniosacral region  Ganglia lie in or near target organs  Has long preganglionic and short postganglionic fiber

 Employs ACh as a neurotransmitter  Produces local effects Differentiate types of reflexes Visceral reflexes : Affect an organ. Somatic reflexes : involve the contraction of a skeletal muscle after being stimulated by a somatic motor neuron. CHAPTER 12 Sense Organs Classify sensory receptors Identify the 5 common senses Describe the function of each sensory receptor Explain the structure and function of the ear and eye Explain the process of vision Focus Tips: The workbook is gold and is your friend, and practice questions at the end of chapters. Know and be able to locate the muscles for IM injections ...deltoid, vastus lateralis Vastus lateralis Gluteus medius: Abducts and rotates thigh outward Deltoid: Abducts, flexes, and rotates the arm; involved in swinging the arm (walking or bowling); also raises the arm to perform tasks, such as writing on an elevated surface Rectus abdominis: Flexes the lumbar region of the spinal column to cause bending forward at the waist; extends from the sternum to the pubic bone

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Know and be able to locate Deltoid, Rectus abdominis, glut max, vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, deltoid -location and function Deltoid: Abducts, flexes, and rotates the arm; involved in swinging the arm (walking or bowling); also raises the arm to perform tasks, such as writing on an elevated surface Rectus abdominis: Flexes the lumbar region of the spinal column to cause bending forward at the waist; extends from the sternum to the pubic bone Gluteus maximus: Bulkiest muscle in the body; produces the backswing of the leg when walking and provides most of the power for climbing stairs Quadriceps femoris: Most powerful muscle in the body, prime mover for knee extension. Vastus intermedius, Rectus femoris, Vastus lateralis, Vastus medialis Be able to locate and identify lobes of cerebrum Frontal lobe: Central sulcus forms the posterior boundary. Voluntary movements, memory, emotion, social judgment, decision making, reasoning, and aggression; certain aspects of one’s personality Parietal lobe: Central sulcus forms the anterior boundary. Receiving and interpreting bodily sensations; proprioception Occipital lobe: Analyzing and interpreting visual info Temporal lobe: Separated from the parietal lobe by the lateral sulcus. Hearing, smell, learning, memory, emotional behavior, and visual recognition Insula: Hidden behind lateral sulcus. Perception of pain, basic emotions, addiction, motor control, self- awareness, and cognitive functioning Locate, identify main brain structures- Brain stem, cerebellum, and cerebrum. ASSIGNMENT # 2 P. 119 workbook neuron structure cell body AKA soma: control center of the neuron; contains the nucleus Dendrites: receive signals from other neurons and conduct the info to the cell body. Some neurons have only one dendrite; others have thousands. Axon: carries nerve signals away from cell body, longer than dendrites and contains few branches. Only one axon; length of the fiber can range from a few millimeters to as much as a meter. Myelin sheath: axons of many (not all) neurons are encased in it. Mostly lipid, myelin insulates the axon. In PNS, Schwann cells form the myelin sheath. In CNS, oligodendrocytes assume this role.

Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in the myelin sheath, occur at evenly spaced intervals Synaptic knob: knobs at the end of the terminals on the branched end of the axon. Within the synaptic knobs are vesicles containing a neurotransmitter Primary tastes, p. 231 salty, sweet, sour, and bitter Main senses p.227 sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch General Senses p 229 Pain, pressure, touch, stretch, and temperature What structures make up the central nervous system Brain and the spinal cord Sympathetic/Parasympathetic division p. 214 Know that entire box!!! AND P. 138 workbook!! Sympathetic Division AKA thoracolumbar division: Increases alertness • Increases heart rate • Dilates bronchial tubes to increase air flow in the lungs • Dilates blood vessels of skeletal muscles to increase blood flow • Inhibits intestinal motility • Stimulates secretion of thick salivary mucus • Stimulates sweat glands • Stimulates adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine • No effect on the urinary bladder or internal sphincter • “Fight or flight” • Originates in thoracolumbar region • Ganglia lie in chain alongside spinal cord • Short preganglionic and long postganglionic fiber • Employs mostly norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter (occasionally uses ACh) • Produces widespread, generalized effects Parasympathetic Division AKA craniosacral division: Has a calming effect • Decreases heart rate

• Constricts bronchial tubes to decrease air flow in lungs • No effect on blood vessels of skeletal muscles • Stimulates intestinal motility and secretion to promote digestion • Stimulates secretion of thin salivary mucus • No effect on sweat glands • No effect on adrenal medulla • Stimulates the bladder wall to contract and the internal sphincter to relax to cause urination • “Resting and digesting” • Originates in craniosacral region • Ganglia lie in or near target organs • Has long preganglionic and short postganglionic fiber • Employs ACh as a neurotransmitter • Produces local effects Where is the auditory area of the brain? P. 203 mint green box Temporal lobe Name sensory receptors and their function Chemoreceptors: These receptors react to various chemicals. This includes odors and tastes, as well as the concentration of various chemicals in the body. Mechanoreceptors: These receptors respond to factors that change the position of a receptor, such as pressure, stretch, or vibration. Thermoreceptors: These receptors are activated by a change in temperature. Nociceptors: These are pain receptors that respond to tissue damage from trauma, heat, chemicals, pressure, or a lack of oxygen. Photoreceptors: Found only in the eyes, these receptors respond to light. Function of tears p237 yellow box Tears clean and moisten the eye’s surface and also deliver oxygen and nutrients to the conjunctiva. Contain a bacterial enzyme called lysozyme that helps prevent infection what is Adaptation as it relates to sensory process p228 body at work When a stimulus is continuous, the firing frequency of the nerve begins to slow, causing the sensation to diminish. This is known as adaptation

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Inner ear structures Bony labyrinth: inner ear; within a complicated system of passageways inside the temporal bone Membranous labyrinth: lines the inside of the bony labyrinth. Perilymph: Fluid that cushions the space between the two labyrinths Endolymph: Fluid occupies the inside of the membranous labyrinth Know the 12 pairs of Cranial Nerves, name, location and function Olfactory nerve (I, sensory): Governs sense of smell. Terminates in olfactory bulbs in the cribriform plate, just above the nasal cavity Optic nerve (II, sensory): Concerned with vision. Links the retina to the brain’s visual cortex Oculomotor nerve ((III mainly motor): controls pupil constriction, regulates voluntary movements of the eyelid and eyeball Trochlear nerve (IV mainly motor): regulates voluntary movements of the eyelid and eyeball Trigeminal nerve (V, two sensory and one mixed branch): Sensory branches (ophthalmic and maxillary) sense touch, temp, and pain on the eye, face, and teeth; mixed branch (mandibular) controls chewing and detects sensations in the lower jaw. Ophthalmic branch triggers the corneal reflex: blinking in response to a light touch on the eyeball Abducens nerve (VI mainly motor): regulates voluntary movements of the eyelid and eyeball Facial nerve (VII, mixed): Sensory portion concerned with taste; motor portion controls facial expression and secretion of tears and saliva Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII, sensory): Concerned with hearing and balance Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX, mixed): Motor fibers govern tongue movements, swallowing, and gagging. Sensory fibers handle taste, touch, and temperature from the tongue; also concerned with regulation of blood pressure Vagus nerve (X, mixed): Longest and most widely distributed cranial nerve. Supplies organs in the head and neck as well as those in the thoracic and abd cavities. Plays key role in many heart, lung, digestive, and urinary functions Spinal accessory nerve (XI, mainly motor): Controls movement in the head, neck, and shoulders Hypoglossal nerve (XII, mainly motor): Controls tongue movements Referred pain

Pain felt in a part of the body other than its actual source functions of neurotransmitters, neuromuscular junction, neurilemma Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger Neuromuscular junction: Connection between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber Neurilemma: Outermost layer of Schwann cell; necessary for nerve regeneration atrophy/ hypertrophy-know the difference and examples of each Atrophy: Decrease in the size of a muscle. A lack of use causes the muscle fibers, and the entire muscle, to shrink, or atrophy. Hypertrophy: Enlargement of a muscle. Strength training, causes a muscle to enlarge. This is called hypertrophy. Intense exercise slightly injures muscle fibers. As the body repairs the damage, the fibers enlarge, and so does the muscle. Anaerobic respiration of glucose-green box p.160 Anaerobic respiration: break down glucose in the bloodstream and glycogen in the muscle. Produces lactic acid, which leads to muscle fatigue. – 10 MINS OF EXERCISE lactic acid in muscle burn, strenuous exercise p. 160 When you “go for the burn” in strenuous exercise, that burn is a symptom of lactic acid accumulation from anaerobic respiration. visceral reflex p 212 The ANS asserts control through visceral reflexes—similar to somatic reflexes discussed earlier, but, instead of affecting a skeletal muscle, these reflexes affect an organ White matter /gray matter- what's the difference, location and function Gray matter: Nervous tissue containing mostly cell bodies of motor neurons and interneurons. Gray matter appears gray because of its lack of myelin. The brain’s gray matter (the part charged with thought, learning, and reasoning) is located at its surface, the folds allow more gray matter to be packed into the small area of the skull. Unlike the spinal cord (in which gray matter forms the interior), in the brain, gray matter forms the surface and covers the cerebrum and cerebellum in a layer called the cortex.

White matter: Nervous tissue containing bundles of axons that carry impulses from one part of the nervous system to another. White matter appears white because of its abundance of myelin. Underneath the cortex is white matter, although gray matter exists in patches called nuclei throughout the white matter. Ventricles of brain- CSF p 199 The brain contains four chambers, called ventricles A clear, colorless fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fills the ventricles and central canal; it also bathes the outside of the brain and spinal cord. CSF is formed from blood by the choroid plexus (a network of blood vessels lining the floor or wall of each ventricle). slow pain fibers (dull ache) vs. / Fast pain fibers Slow pain fibers: Produce a dull, aching pain; found on deep body organs and structures Fast pain fibers: Produce sharp, localized, stabbing-type pain at the time of injury; abundant in the skin and mucous membranes afferent/efferent neurons know the difference and example of each p 182 Sensory (afferent) neurons detect stimuli—such as touch, pressure, heat, cold, or chemicals— and then transmit information about the stimuli to the CNS. - Mechanoreceptors which respond to stimuli such as touch, pressure, and vibrations Motor (efferent) neurons relay messages from the brain (which the brain emits in response to stimuli) to the muscle or gland cells. Efferent neurons have their cell bodies located in the ventral horn of the spinal cord. From there, efferent axons leave the spinal cord through the ventral root, travel through the spinal nerves, and ultimately synapse with the skeletal muscle cells found in the neuromuscular junction How many pairs of spinal nerves p. 194 and how many pairs of cranial nerves. 8 cervical nerves (C1-C8) 12 thoracic nerves (T1-T12) 5 lumbar nerves (L1-L5) 5 sacral nerves (S1-S5) 1 coccygeal nerve (Co) 12 cranial nerves

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classification of receptors p. 228 Chemoreceptors: These receptors react to various chemicals. This includes odors and tastes, as well as the concentration of various chemicals in the body. Mechanoreceptors: These receptors respond to factors that change the position of a receptor, such as pressure, stretch, or vibration. Thermoreceptors: These receptors are activated by a change in temperature. Nociceptors: These are pain receptors that respond to tissue damage from trauma, heat, chemicals, pressure, or a lack of oxygen. Photoreceptors: Found only in the eyes, these receptors respond to light. location/function of medulla oblongata, hypothalamus, neurilemma, Node of Ranvier Medulla oblongata: Attaches brain to spinal cord. Relays sensory and motor signals b/w brain & spinal cord. Contains: Cardiac center, regulates heart rate. Vasomotor center controls blood vessel diameter - blood pressure. 2 respiratory centers regulate breathing. Reflex centers for coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting. BRAINSTEM Hypothalamus: tiny area of the brain. Controls ANS. Responsible for hunger, thirst, and temp regulation. Controls pituitary gland. Emotional responses. DIENCEPHALON Neurilemma: Outermost layer of Schwann cell; necessary for nerve regeneration. PNS. Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in the myelin sheath, occur at evenly spaced intervals. PNS isotonic muscle contraction, muscle tone p 159 continuous state of partial muscle contraction. Muscle tone is what allows you to stand, hold up your head, and maintain your posture. Having your muscles in a partial state of contraction also allows you to react quickly to a dangerous situation Isotonic contractions: muscle changes length and moves a load, tension in the muscle remains the same. smooth vs skeletal muscle -differences and functions Smooth: Found in the digestive tract, blood vessels, bladder, airways, and uterus Nonstriated Involuntary Skeletal: Attached to bone and causes movement of the body Striated Voluntary

role of acetylcholine and Calcium in muscle contraction-needed for muscle contraction.p.155 1. Electrical impulse causes small vesicles at the end of the motor neuron to fuse with the cell membrane/wall and release ACh into the synaptic cleft. 2. The ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft, where it stimulates receptors in the sarcolemma 3. An electrical impulse travel over the sarcolemma and inward along the T tubules causing the sacs in the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium. 4. Ca binds with the troponin on the actin filament to expose attachment points. 5. Myosin heads of the thick filaments grab onto the thin filaments, and muscle contraction occurs. 6. ACh is no longer released. The enzyme acetylcholinesterase breaks down any remaining ACh 7. Calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 8. Troponin and tropomyosin again prevent the myosin heads from grasping the thin filament, and the muscle fiber relaxes. Muscle tone definition bottom of page p 156 The nervous system constantly monitors skeletal muscles, stimulating muscle fibers just enough to achieve their optimal resting length. This continuous state of partial contraction is called muscle tone location and function of muscle fascia, what is a muscle fiber Muscle cell called muscle fibers. Covered in Endomysium (connective tissue). In bundles called Fascicles. Fascicles covered in tougher connective tissue called Perimysium. Vascular & innervated. Fascicle bunds covered and held together by Epimysium. Epimysium covered in Fascia. Deep fascia is between muscles, Superficial fascia (aka hypodermis) is under the skin. muscle contraction/relaxation. Role of acetylcholinesterase breaks down of acetylcholine. P. 155 1. Electrical impulse causes small vesicles at the end of the motor neuron to fuse with the cell membrane/wall and release ACh into the synaptic cleft. 2. The ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft, where it stimulates receptors in the sarcolemma 3. An electrical impulse travel over the sarcolemma and inward along the T tubules causing the sacs in the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium. 4. Ca binds with the troponin on the actin filament to expose attachment points. 5. Myosin heads of the thick filaments grab onto the thin filaments, and muscle contraction occurs.

6. ACh is no longer released. The enzyme acetylcholinesterase breaks down any remaining ACh 7. Calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 8. Troponin and tropomyosin again prevent the myosin heads from grasping the thin filament, and the muscle fiber relaxes. energy source contraction p 160 initial energy and secondary source- creatine phosphate Aerobic respiration: break down fatty acids for energy (with oxygen) – AT REST Breaking down creatine phosphate (CP), stored in the muscle – START OF EXERCISE Anaerobic respiration: break down glucose in the bloodstream and glycogen in the muscle. Produces lactic acid, which leads to muscle fatigue. – 10 MINS OF EXERCISE After 10 mins of continuous exercise, lungs catch up and aerobic respiration resumes aerobic respiration/anaerobic resp of muscles p 160... Fast Fact p. 160 When you “go for the burn” in strenuous exercise, that burn is a symptom of lactic acid accumulation from anaerobic respiration. location, function of internal, external intercostals External intercostals: Lie superficially between ribs; elevate the ribs during inspiration Internal intercostals: Lie deeper than the external intercostals; depress the ribs during forced exhalation Location, function of cochlea, inner ear structures. Semicircular canals: Crucial for the maintenance of equilibrium and balance. Vestibule: Marks the entrance to the labyrinths, contains organs necessary for the sense of balance. Cochlea: This snail-like structure contains the structures for hearing. The spirals of the cochlea are divided into three compartments. The middle compartment is a triangular duct (called the cochlear duct) filled with endolymph; the outer two compartments are filled with perilymph. Location, function of medulla oblongata p 201 pink box Medulla oblongata: Attaches brain to spinal cord. Relays sensory and motor signals b/w brain & spinal cord. Contains: Cardiac center, regulates heart rate. Vasomotor center controls blood vessel diameter - blood pressure. 2 respiratory centers regulate breathing. Reflex centers for coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting. BRAINSTEM

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Location, function of hypothalamus p 202 green box Hypothalamus: tiny area of the brain. Controls ANS. Responsible for hunger, thirst, and temp regulation. Controls pituitary gland. Emotional responses. DIENCEPHALON

A&P EXAM 2 REVIEW GUIDE. 2023

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