Chapter 21, Problem 1E

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The ways by which water is expressed in the environment.

Water in the environment is mainly expressed as water droplets, ice crystals, and vapors.

Water exists in three forms in the atmosphere: solid (ice), liquid (liquid water), and gas (water vapors). In all the three forms, water is expressed differently. In the solid ice form, water is expressed as snow, on the surface of the Earth. It can also be present in the clouds as very tiny crystals of ice.

In the liquid form, water is expressed as small droplets that form clouds, as raindrops falling from on to the surface, and as large water bodies that are present on the surface of the Earth.

In the gaseous form, water is expressed as invisible water vapors in the atmosphere. These vapors form the clouds after condensation.

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The terms humidity, vapor pressure, relative humidity, and specific humidity using graphs wherever needed.

Humidity, vapor pressure, relative humidity, and specific humidity are the terms that describe the relative properties of water vapors to the total volume of air.

Humidity is the amount of water vapor that are present in the air. Contribution of the water vapors in terms of pressure to the total atmospheric pressure is known as the vapor pressure of air. Percentage of the observed vapor pressure against the maximum vapor pressure that is possible in an environment is called the relative humidity. And finally, the ratio of the mass of water vapors in a volume of air to that of the total mass of that volume of air is known as the specific humidity of that volume of air.

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The global pattern of the specific humidity and the reason behind it.

The specific humidity varies over the globe as a function of latitude. This variation is a result of insolation and the air temperature in different areas.

Specific humidity varies over the globe. Areas nearby to the equator have a higher specific humidity compared to the areas that are far away from the equator. There is a gradual decrease in the specific humidity as one move from the equator towards the poles.This decrease in the specific humidity from the equator towards the poles is a result of the decrease in the energy received from the sun (insolation).

Regions near the equator have higher insolation as a result of which, these areas have a higher rate of evaporation of water. Insolation decreases from the equator towards the poles. Thus, the rate of evaporation also decreases as one move from the equator towards the poles. Along with this, the temperature of the air also plays a significant role in the specific humidity. Warmer air volumes have a higher capacity for water vapors whereas the cold air has a lesser capacity for water vapor. Hence, air near to the equator has higher specific humidity compared to air at the poles.

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The dew point pattern in the United States along with identification of some of the factors that contribute towards high and low dew point variations at different places and between January to July.

The dew point is generally low in the United States during the month of January. The dew point at different places in the United States is very much higher during the month of July compared to that of January. There are different factors such as topography, air flow and others, which contribute towards this variation in the dew point at various locations in the United States (US).

During the month of January, the United States has a low dew point. Some of the places have extremely low dew points. The northern states are characterized by extremely low dew points. During this time only, the desert in the southwest has a low temperature because of the blockage of the moisture by the mountains in Western North America.  The areas in Northern America have an extremely low dew point during January because of low insolation. Areas of Eastern North America have a dew point temperature that is nearby to the air temperature range.

In the U.S., dew point temperature during the month of July is generally high. There is a flow of a large amount of moisture into the Southern Arizona regions from the Gulf of California during the month of July. This makes the dew points in these areas far below the air temperature. Southeastern regions of the U.S have higher dew points during the summer months. This happens as a result of the higher temperature of air and the flow of moist air. Plains of eastern Mexico, Montana, and Wyoming have moderately lower dew points during the month of July. Contrary to this, areas towards the Mississippi River have a much higher dew point. This happens because of the northward moisture flow from the Gulf of Mexico.

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The relationship between the three lapse rates and the stability of the atmosphere.

All three lapse rates and atmospheric stability have a relation between them. Atmosphere having environmental lapse rates lesser than the adiabatic lapse rates are said to be stable, otherwise unstable.

Stability of an environment depends on the lapse rates of the environment. An atmosphere where there is an increase in the potential temperature of the atmosphere with increasing altitude is said to be a stable atmosphere. In such atmospheres, the environmental lapse rates are less than the adiabatic lapse rates.

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The effects of human developmental activities on the temperature of the local surface and the surrounding atmospheric conditions.

Human developmental activities modify the land pattern and the land cover. These activities also change the temperature of the land and the air above it. Human developmental activities are responsible for changing the lapse rate of the environment, which influences the rise of air in the atmosphere, thus affecting the stability levels of the local atmosphere.

Human developmental activities change the land cover pattern at different locations. This change in the land cover pattern can cause the surface temperatures to change and thus leads to change in the environmental lapse rate. Deforestation and urbanization are the two major activities that are carried out during the developmental process. Activities like these results in more of insolation becoming the sensible heat, leading to higher heating up of the land. This leads to increased surface temperatures during the day as well as the night time.

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The summary of the presence or absence of ice on land and water influencing the atmospheric stability.

Presence of ice and snow on land and water causes temperature inversions leading to environmental stability. Melting of ice change the lapse rate, making the environment unstable.

Ice and snow have very much high albedo than that of the rocks. They can appear as well as disappear quickly, resulting in rapid changes in the thermal characteristics of the surface.

When the ground or lake is covered with snow, most of the insolation is reflected back, and the surface is maintained cold. This makes the air over the surface to sink. Cold air near the surface is trapped by the sinking air. Air near to the surface is cold, but the air at upper heights has comparatively higher temperature. This makes the atmosphere stable, that can also result in a temperature inversion, which is one of the most stable conditions.

When the ice melts, it allows the insolation to reach the surface and warm it. This also makes the air near to the surface warmer and ends the temperature inversion. End of the temperature inversion changes the lapse rates, and thus, making the environment less stable.

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The differences between primary and secondary impacts of the event, such as drought and provide examples of each type of effect from the 2012 drought in Texas.

Drying out of crops is considered as a primary impact of drought, and an increase in the price of seeds is the secondary impact. The primary impact of drought in 2012 was damage to crops, and the secondary impact was drying out of grass and bushes.

The following are the differences between primary and secondary impacts of an event, such as drought:

No.    Criteria    Primary impact    Secondary impact

1.    Effects    Primary impacts of drought include drying out agricultural fields and dying of crops.    Secondary impacts of drought include an increase in the price of seeds.

2.    Effect on organisms    In 2012, drought condition in Texas resulted in the loss of wildlife populations as their habitats were degraded.    In 2012, drought condition resulted in reduced seed production that altered the food chain.

3.    Example    In Texas, 2012 drought caused damage to crops due to the extreme dryness of the soil and lack of rainfall.    In Texas, 2012 drought caused grass and bush to dry out, resulting in a series of wildfires that burned over 3 million acres region.

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The features of types of air mass, its location of formation, and the process by which it influences the climate of the region.

The two types of air masses are Continental Air Masses and Maritime Air Masses. The Continental Air Mass is categorized into Continental tropical air mass, Arctic or Antarctic air mass, and Continental Polar air mass. The Maritime Air Masses is categorized into Equatorial air mass, Maritime tropical air mass, and Maritime polar air mass.

There are majorly two types of air masses-Continental Air Masses and Maritime Air Masses.

The types of Continental Air Masses are explained as follows:

(i) Continental tropical (cT) air mass:

It is a hot, dry air mass that occurs over land. It occurs in the Desert Southwest of North America, the Sahara, and Arabian Deserts, Tibet, and central Australia. It makes the climate of a region oppressively hot and dry.

(ii) Arctic or Antarctic (A) air mass:

These air masses are extremely cold and at the same time very dry because they contain low capacity of water-vapors. These air masses occur near the North and South Poles. It brings very cold air into the concerned region.

(iii) Continental polar (cP) air mass:

These air masses are cold and dry, but comparatively less cold and dry than Arctic or Antarctic air mass. They form over cold, inland areas of northern Canada, Siberia, Mongolia, and north-central Europe. These air masses bring cold air in winters, but in summers; the air masses are not as cold.

The types of Maritime Air Masses are described as follows:

(i) Equatorial (E) air mass:

These air masses are very warm and moist, which form near the equator. These air masses bring warm and moisture-laden air into the concerned region.

(ii) Maritime tropical (mT) air mass:

These air masses are warm and moist. They form over warm, oceanic regions of the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent eastern U.S. They make the affected region warm and humid in summer.

(iii) Maritime polar (mP) air mass:

These air masses are cool and humid, but not as cold as cP air mass. They form over Seattle and most of Western Europe. These air masses bring cold, damp air into the concerned region.

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The reasons that determine the rate by which air mass obtains its features and gets modified on migration.

The air mass obtains its features from the source region. It gives the air mass forming over inland or frozen areas, oceans, low altitudes its dry, humid, and warm characteristics respectively. The air mass gets modified in its temperature and moisture on migration. This affects the lapse rate, air stability, and the amount of mixing that occurs in the air mass.

The air mass gets all of its features from its region where it forms, known as the source region. The air masses that form inland or over frozen ocean areas are dry. The air masses that are formed above the oceans are humid. The air masses that form in the low altitude are considered to be a bit warmer as compared to the ones that form over high altitudes.

When the air mass migrates from the source region to a different region, its temperature and moisture get modified. This modification affects the lapse rate, air stability, and the amount of mixing that happens in the air mass.

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The process of formation of the mid-latitude cyclone from surface features and upper-level flow by including the factors that form cyclones in North America. Also, determine the tracks commonly followed by these cyclones.

The cyclone forms in various places where the lower and upper atmospheric conditions are favorable. The factors form in the Gulf of Alaska region of North America. The tracks followed by these cyclones involve Gulf of Alaska, Alberta Clipper, Colorado, and Gulf Lows.

The cyclone originates in various places as long as there are favorable conditions in the lower and upper atmosphere. As the air moves downslope on the lee side of a mountain, it becomes stretched vertically as the depth of atmosphere increases. The cyclones form over water, offshore of cold land, during colder times of the year, when the coastal land cools more rapidly than the adjacent water. The rising air over the ocean forms an area of low pressure just offshore.

The low-pressure area plus the winds that blow towards the pole leads to the formation of a cyclone along with the cold-warm interface present at the coast. Then, the fast-moving air passes from a trough to a ridge, which accelerates and spreads out, drawing the underlying air upward. The resulting low pressure near the surface can develop into a cyclone.

These factors form cyclones in low pressure off the west coast of North America, in the Gulf of Alaska.

When the Cyclones are formed, they are guided by large-scale patterns of atmospheric circulation. They follow similar paths or storm tracks across the surface. The storm tracks Gulf of Alaska, Alberta Clipper, Colorado, and Gulf Lows. The storm tracks converge near New England. When the storm arrives, they are often considered as older where they spend most of the latent energy before tracking to the New England area.

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The formation of multicell or supercell thunderstorms.

The multicell thunderstorm occurs after hitting the surface with downdrafts of cold, dense air spreads. The downdrafts make the warm air to get displaced to such an extent that it forms another line of the storm which comes to be known as multicell thunderstorms.

The thunderstorms that occur in clusters are known as multicell thunderstorms. This happens when the downdraft of cold, dense air spreads out when it hits the surface. It pushes the warmer air upwards and strengthens the nearby thunderstorm or even triggers a new one. The downdrafts and resulting outflow cause the warm air ahead of the outflow to be displaced upward to such an extent that it triggers another thunderstorm or a row of thunderstorms. The type of systems coming from a line of downdrafts forms another line of storms proceeding in a "conveyor belt" fashion affecting huge regions. The type of storm formed is then called multicell thunderstorms.

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The variations that occur in the frequency of the thunderstorms around the world with the changes experienced in seasons and from land to oceans.

The thunderstorms are most frequently observed in central Africa, Central America, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, and North America. On contrary, Europe exhibits fewer thunderstorms. In the winter season, the thunderstorms occur abundantly in southern Africa and South America. In summers, the thunderstorms occur in Northern Hemisphere. The thunderstorms are more common on land as compared to oceans.

Majority of the thunderstorms that occur at any time in the world are located within the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The high intensity of thunderstorms occur in central Africa, however it is also abundant in Central America, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia. North America experiences frequent thunderstorms. Europe exhibits fewer thunderstorms. The polar region like Antarctica is too cold to show moisture sufficient for condensation and deposition required to support thunderstorm.

In the winter season, many thunderstorms occur at the south of the equator than north of it. During this time, the thunderstorms are abundant in southern Africa and South America. The locus of thunderstorm activity shifts to the Northern Hemisphere during summers.

The thunderstorms are much more common on land than over the oceans. Also, above the oceans, the thunderstorms are more frequent near the coastlines than in areas far from the coast.

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The part of the U.S that experiences frequent thunderstorm and the factors influencing its frequency and seasonality.

The Midwest, Northeast, and the Southeast part of the U.S experience frequent thunderstorms. The factors influencing the frequency and seasonality of thunderstorms include the contact between the cold and warm air masses and the occurrence of tropical cyclones.

The thunderstorm frequency increases from north to south in the Midwest and Northeast parts of the U.S. The Southeast part of the U.S experiences the highest frequency of thunderstorm, with the Florida Peninsula experiencing the most thunderstorms in the country.

The factors that influence the frequency and seasonality of thunderstorms are as follows:

(i) In March and April, the thunderstorms occur inland along the Lower Mississippi Valley because the cold and warm air masses come into contact with each other at strong cold fronts.

(ii) In May, the peak is experienced in Texas because of the combination of early summer convection of some days with late-season cold-front activity on others.

(iii) In June, the location of thunderstorm activity shifts farther north and inland, onto the Great Plains. Then, in September, the peak is observed in Florida because of the occurrence of tropical cyclones.

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The strategies for staying safe from lightning and the reason for the application of each strategy.

The enclosed building offers best protection from lighting, and an individual should avoid contact with electrical equipment inside the building. This is because direct contact with any solid material that is a good conductor of electricity is harmful in a thunderstorm.

The following are the strategies for staying safe from lightning:

(i) Enclosed building such as house provides the best protection from lighting. When inside a building, an individual must stay away from doors and windows. Also, avoid contact with corded phones, plumbing, and electrical equipment, because direct contact with any solid object that conducts electricity is extremely dangerous in thunderstorms.

(ii) Generally, basements are safe, however avoid contact with the concrete walls that may have metal reinforcing bars. Metal bars are a good conductor of electricity and thus, extremely harmful in lightning.

(iii) In the absence of safe shelter, stay away from tall objects such as trees, and crouch down the body weight on toes and feet close together. Also, lower the head and get as low as possible without touching the knees or hands to the ground. During the lighting, tall objects minimize the distance that electrical energy requires to travel through the air.

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The weather systems that generate tornadoes.

Most tornadoes occur in association with cold fronts, and others occur embedded in single-cell thunderstorms or tropical cyclones.

The following are the systems that generate tornadoes:

(i) Associated with cold fronts:

Most tornadoes occur in association with large supercell or multicell thunderstorms. These storms are usually associated with the cold fronts. For example, most catastrophic tornadoes are linked with supercell or multicell thunderstorms on Great Plains and Southeast, generally in warm sectors of cold fronts.

(ii) Tropical cyclones:

Tropical cyclones such as hurricanes can also spawn tornadoes, but the large proportion of these are not very strong. This is because the upper-air pattern that favored tornado generation is obliterated by the circulation of a tropical cyclone.

(iii) Single-cell thunderstorms:

Generally, single-cell thunderstorms spawn small and weak tornadoes. This is because the storm system is itself not very large or powerful and tornadoes produced in this system are mainly restricted in the afternoon.

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The way haboobs and dust devils are produced.

Haboobs forms at the collapse of a dying thunderstorm. Dust devil form when the atmosphere is highly unstable, and upper-level patterns encourage rising motion.

Haboobs are produced in a similar manner to microbursts. Later in the life cycle of a thunderstorm, when the lifting power of convecting air starts to be overwhelmed by the downward force of downdrafts, the lower parts of the cloud and the surface become cool. This condition limits the heat available for additional convection, and thunderstorm starts to collapse. The collapsing of thunderstorm causes a strong downdraft, which can pick up dust from desert regions and form a thick dust cloud.

Dust devil develops when the atmosphere is volatile, and upper-level patterns encourage rising motion. The upward movement generates strong pressure gradients, which strengthen the system uncontrollably. After some time, the energy is expanded, the friction slows the winds, and the dust devil dissipates.

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The kinds of damages linked with tropical cyclones.

Tornadoes and other local strong winds embedded within tropical cyclones can cause localized damage. The large waves associated with cyclones can erode parts of the beach, and the coastal flooding inundates low-lying regions along the coast.

The following are the kinds of damages linked with tropical cyclones:

(i) Most of the damage from tropical cyclones is from the high winds. Moreover, tornadoes and other strong local winds embedded within larger storm can cause localized damage.

(ii) The shorelines are also afflicted by rough surface associated with very large waves. These waves can erode parts of the beach, making houses even less protected.

(iii) Also, the coastal flooding associated with tropical cyclones inundates low-lying regions along the coast.

(iv) The storm surge produced by tropical cyclones can be devastating. It can bring marine objects onshore, including ships.

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The way an individual can categorize tropical cyclones.

The tropical cyclones can be categorized based on their strengths. The category of tropical cyclone that is considered dangerous is called tropical depression. Category 1 is the weakest hurricane, and category 5 is the strongest.

An individual can categorize the tropical cyclones based on their strengths. For example, the least energetic kind of tropical cyclone considered dangerous is a tropical depression. The tropical cyclone that gains wind speeds of 69 kilometres per hour is known as a tropical storm. If a storm strengthens to wind speeds of 119 kilometres per hour, it is described as a hurricane, cyclone, or a typhoon.

The weakest hurricane is category 1 and strongest is category 5. The amount of expected damage elevates non-linearly with storm strength. For example, the category 4 storm produces more than four times the damage of category 1. Category 3, 4, and 5 are often called major hurricanes, cyclones, or typhoons.

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The way Hurricane Sandy is produced, changed over time, and distinguished from the tropical cyclone.

In the Caribbean, the Hurrican Sandy began as a tropical disturbance and evolved into a tropical storm and then a hurricane. Hurricane Sandy was massive and can affect the entire eastern half of the U.S, even though its winds speeds were not very strong as compared with the typical hurricane.

Hurricane Sandy initiated as a tropical disturbance in the Caribbean. The system strengthened greatly because it remained over warm waters and was in an area with limited vertical wind shear. Hurricane sandy evolved into a tropical storm and then hurricane. The storm was weakened in Jamaica and Cuba due to interactions with the land. As it moved to Atlantic, it was downgraded to a tropical storm. Once over warm waters of Gulf Stream, the storm was reinvigorated because of approaching the second storm to the west.

The following are the differences between Hurricane Sandy and the typical hurricane:

No.    Criteria    Hurricane Sandy    Typical hurricane

1.    Damage    Hurricane Sandy was a massive hurricane by any standards and can affect the entire eastern half of the United States.    Typical hurricane causes lesser damage as compared to Hurricane Sandy.

2.    Associated components    Hurricane Sandy caused extremely high precipitation, including ice, snow, and blizzards.    High precipitation, including ice, snow, and blizzards are not associated with typical a hurricane.

3.    Effects    Sandy Hurricane struck a part of the coast where some structures were not built to withstand such storms.    Sandy Hurricane struck a part of the coast that generally does not experience frequent hurricanes.

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The differences between the SST in January and July along with an explanation.

Sea-surface temperatures (SST) vary from warm water to cold water. The SST is different from region to region, in every season and every decade. The SST of January and July can be distinguished based on the temperature of season and insolation.

The differences between the SST in January and July are as follows:

No.    Criteria    SST of January    SST of July

1.    Temperature of season    The sea-surface temperature of January shows the temperature of the winter season.    The sea-surface temperature of July shows the temperature of the summer season.

2.    Insolation    Maximum insolation.    Minimum insolation.

3.    Examples    The water near the North pole is cold in January    The water away from the equator is warm in July.

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The ways by which minerals are dissolved in water and the ways by which density affects the salinity of the water.

The minerals are dissolved in water after splitting into the ions. The water molecule also dissociates into its respective ions and attract the oppositely charged ions.

The minerals such as common salt, when added to the water, dissociates into ions like Na+ and Cl-. The ions diffuse away from the water. The water molecules arrange around the sodium and chlorine ions. The negatively charged chloride ion is attracted towards the positive end of the water molecule. On the other side, a positively charged sodium ion is attracted towards the negative side of the water molecule.

As the salinity of water increases, the density of water also increases. Therefore, the density of water is directly proportional to the salinity of the water.

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The global patterns of ocean salinity and temperature, the comparison between different regions and the factors responsible for larger patterns.

The salinity of the ocean and the temperature differs from region to region on the vertical and horizontal axis of Earth. Based on this difference, the different regions are categorized as equatorial, temperate, tropical and arctic. The ocean salinity is also influenced by the climate and temperature of an area.

The temperature, salinity of the ocean and the location of the area, categorizes the regions of the world into the equatorial, polar and subtropical area.

(i) Equatorial region:

The equatorial ocean is warmer as they receive maximum sunlight directly from the sun. The ocean waters are less saline as the area also receives heavy rainfall. This produces an ocean with low density and low salinity. The areas are warmer than any other region of the Earth.

(ii) Subtropical regions

The mid-latitude water has moderate temperature and moderate salinity. The area receives intermediate rainfall and radiation from the sun and precipitation is more than the evaporation. Hence, the salinity of the oceans is low. The subtropical or temperate areas have high ocean salinity. The evaporation rate is more than the precipitation; therefore, the density of the water is higher. The oceans with the highest salinity are located in the subtropical areas.

(iii) Polar region

The Polar Regions have cold seawater and receive minimum radiation. Hence, the evaporation rate is the lowest. However, due to very less rainfall, the ocean water is highly saline.

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The reason for climatic classification.

Climates are classified to help an individual observe wide patterns and simplify the communication about the features of a region.

Classification refers to the process of grouping similar items together and separating the dissimilar items. Climatic classification helps an individual to observe broad patterns and simplify the communication about the features of a particular region or area. For example, the terms polar and tropical efficiently convey some understanding about such areas with a single word.

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The intent of Koppen in developing the Koppen classification system.

The intent of the Koppen classification system is to design a formula that would define climatic boundaries in such a way as to correspond to biomes.

The Koppen classification system is a vegetation-based empirical classification system. The main purpose of this classification system was to devise a formula that would define climatic boundaries corresponding to the natural vegetation zones called biomes.

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The five major categories of climates in Koppen climatic classification system.

Tropical climates, arid climates, temperate mid-latitude climates, harsh mid-latitude climates, and polar climates are the five main categories of Koppen classification system.

The five major categories of Koppen classification system are tropical climates, arid climates, temperate mid-latitude climates, harsh mid-latitude climates, and polar climates. These categories are further subdivided using a succession of criteria of temperature and water availability. In the arid climate, the atmosphere evaporates more water when compared with the water provided by precipitation.

The tropical climate has the coldest month mean temperature, which is greater than or equal to 18°C. The temperate mid-latitude climate has the coldest month's mean temperature that is greater than or equal to 0°C. The harsh mid-latitude climate has the warmest months mean temperature, which is greater than or equal to 10°C.

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The factors evaluated when subdividing different climate forms within a primary group.

Factors evaluated when subdividing different climate forms include whether the summer is cool, warm, or hot and whether most precipitation falls in winter, summer, during monsoon, or throughout a year.

Once the climate is assigned to the various groups of Koppen climate classification, it is then classified by several factors. The factors considered when subdividing different climate forms within a primary group are mentioned as follows:

(i) Hot, warm, or cool summer.

(ii) Most precipitation falls in winter, summer, during monsoon, or throughout the year.

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The area in which Group climates mainly occur and the relative positions of Af, Am, and Aw climates.

Group A climates occur in Tropical Rain Forest, and Af climates are closet to the equator. Aw climates are farthest away from the equator, and Af climates are in between in position and character.

Group A climates are all tropical, and thus, there is least seasonality in temperature. Tropical Rain Forest (Af) climates are closest to the equator and show the least variation in precipitation over the year, whereas Tropical Savanna (Aw) climate are farthest away from the equator. Aw climates depict maximum seasonal changes. Tropical Monsoon (Am) climates are usually in between Am and Af climates in position and character.

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The reason for the nearly constant temperature in A climates throughout the year, specifically in Tropical Rain Forest climates.

Group A climates, specifically Tropical Rain Forest climates have nearly constant temperature because these forests are closest to the equator and display the least variation in precipitation over a year.

In most months of the year, the precipitation exceeds through transpiration and evaporation in a Tropical Rain Forest climate. In Tropical Rain forest, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) brings rain most days throughout a year. Group A climates are all tropical. Hence, there is least seasonality in temperature. This is because Tropical Rain forest climates are closest to the equator and display very little variation in precipitation over the year.

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The relationship between the ITCZ and the geographic location of each zone and its effect on season and amount of precipitation.

Precipitation and season shift to location north and south of the equator in the regions of group A is primarily caused by the convergence of the trade winds along the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

ITCZ stands for Intertropical Convergence Zone, which shifts with the season to locations north and south of the equator.

ITCZ brings rain throughout the year in a Tropical Rain Forest. The climate of Af remains under the influence of ITCZ.

During low-Sun-season months in Tropical monsoon, ITCZ moves too far away to generate much precipitation.

The migrating ITCZ helps in bringing summer rain in the Tropical Savannas. These areas are influenced by subtropical highs, which makes them dry and warm.

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The climatic properties of Group B climates and their location.

Group B climate comprises desert and steppe climates, where potential evapotranspiration is high, and precipitation is low. Hot desert climate (BWh) occurs in the areas of Africa, Cold desert climate (BWk) occurs in the interiors of China, Hot steppe climate (BSh) occurs in regions of Sahara, and Cold steppes (BSk) covers Great Plains, Tibet, and Central Asia.

In the hot deserts climate (BWh), during noon Sun is generally high for several consecutive months. BWh covers huge areas of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, the interiors of Australia, and parts of Southwest America.

Cold Steppe (BSk) and Cold dessert (BWk) climates are relatively dry with lower temperatures. BSk is abundant along the Great Plains and western interiors of North America. BWk occurs in the interior of Asia.

Hot steppe climates (BSh) lack clouds and precipitation for much of the year. They occur across the Sahel region south of the Sahara.

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The three varieties of Group C climates and their location.

Humid Subtropical climates (Cfa) are wet year-round with hot summers. They occur on the east coasts of South America and eastern Asia. Mediterranean climates experience wet winters and occur near the Mediterranean Sea. Temperate Monsoon climates receive most of the rainfall, and they occur in southern South America and southern Africa.

The three types of Group C climates are described as follows:

(i) Humid Subtropical climate (Cfa) are wet climates and hot summers with the short cold season. They generally occur on the east coast of South America, eastern Asia, and eastern Australia.

(ii) Mediterranean climate experience wet winters with dry and hot, or dry and warm summers. They generally occur near the west coast of the Pacific coast of the U.S, southwestern South America, and southern Eurasia.

(iii) Temperate monsoon climate receives most of the rainfall in the summer. They generally occur in southern South America, southern Africa, and northeastern Australia.

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The factors that influence the temperature of a temperate climate.

The factors that influence the temperature of a temperate climate are a location in or near the subtropics, tropical air masses in summer, and polar and tropical air masses in winter.

The temperate climates mostly experience moderate temperature and precipitation. Several temperate climates are comparatively warm. This is because they occur in subtropical latitudes. The pleasant temperature in temperate climates is mainly due to a location in or near the subtropics. In this region, a large amount of insolation warms the land and water, which in turn warms the air. Temperate climates are solely influenced by tropical air masses, particularly maritime tropical air masses in the summertime. Temperate climates are affected by polar and tropical air masses in winters.

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The varieties and location of occurrence of mid-latitude climates (Cfb, Cfc, Dfa, Dfb, Dwa, and Dwb).

The mid-latitude climates (Cfb and Cfc) occur over or near oceans. The summer is warm in climate Cfb and cooler in climate Cfc. The winters are cold but not severe. The mid-latitude climates (Dfa and Dfb) occur at the interior of continents. These climates are wet year-round. The mid-latitude climates (Dwa, and Dwb) occur mostly in Asia, in the interior of China and north of the Korean Peninsula. These climates have dry winters and hot, wet summers.

The Marine West Coast climates (Cfb and Cfc) occur over or near oceans at reasonably high latitudes. A high supply of moisture provides precipitation throughout the year. The effect of the ocean means that summers are warm in Cfb climate or cool in Cfc climate. The winters are cold but not severe. Such climates occur in northern and southern parts of oceans and across most of western Europe. Humid Continental climates (Dfa and Dfb) are wet year-round. These climates are characterized by hot Dfa climates or warm Dfb climates and long and cold Dfa climates to severe winters in Dfb climates. These climates occur in southern Russia and the upper Midwest and great lakes region of the U.S. in the Continental Monsoon climates (Dwa, and Dwb), precipitation changes significantly during the year, partly due to nearby monsoons. Dwa climates have dry winters and hot, wet summers. Dwb climates occur farther north and have warm summers. These climates occur mostly in Asia, in the interior of China and north of the Korean Peninsula.

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The prominent differences between group D and group E climates in the Koppen system.

The main differences between group D and group E climates in the Koppen system are based on their location and temperature.

The following table explains the differences between group D and group E climates in the Koppen system:

No.    Criteria    Group D climate    Group E climate

1.    Location     Group D climates are located in a band away from the poles.    Group E climates are centred around both poles.

2    Temperature     The temperature during the warmest month is greater than or equal to 10°C. The temperature during the coldest month is -3°C or lower.    The temperature during the warmest month is less than 10°C. The temperature during the coldest month reaches to -70°C.

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The factors that are responsible for limiting the amount of precipitation in Subarctic and polar climates.

The moisture supply to the surface of Earth is termed as precipitation. The Subarctic and polar climates are characterized by low precipitation. The quantity of precipitation in Subarctic and polar climates is limited by very low temperature, very cold air, and their location near frozen seas.

The quantity of precipitation in Subarctic and polar climates is limited by the following factors:

(i) The Subarctic and polar climates are very cold places. Very low temperature has several entailments for precipitations.

(ii) Very cold air has a low capacity to hold water vapor. It is difficult to form clouds without much water vapor and even more difficult to generate precipitation.

(iii) The Subarctic and polar regions are present far from the zone where warm and cold air masses meet for most of the year. Therefore, frontal precipitation is minimal.

(iv) The region of Subarctic and polar climates is mostly inland, or near frozen seas. Humidity into the sea must mainly arise over unfrozen seas away from the pole. The continual high pressure over the pole causes the wind to usually blow away from the poles and push any moist air away. This results in low precipitation.

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The factors that contribute to the very cold temperature in Subarctic and Polar climates.

The factors that cause very cold temperatures in Subarctic and Polar climates are low Sun angles, seasonal variation in day length, high albedo, continentality, and atmospheric circulation.

The factors that cause very cold temperatures in Subarctic and Polar climates are described as follows:

(i) Low Sun angles:

The latitude of Subarctic and Polar climates directs that Sun angles are very low during summer and below the horizon for most of the winter. A low Sun angle results in less sunlight per unit area and a long path length through the atmosphere. This increases the amount of insolation absorbed, reflected, and scattered in the air before reaching the surface.

(ii) Seasonal variation in day length:

Sunlight hours are very short (if exist) in winters. The summer days have many hours, but the low Sun angles forbid the surface from warming much.

(iii) High albedo:

Snow and ice surfaces have high reflectivity. Hence, a high percentage of the limited insolation is reflected directly back to space without any effect on these areas.

(iv) Continentality:

Extensive sea ice surrounds the coastline and covers most of the Arctic ocean. It almost acts like a single large continent during some times of the year. The setting causes the North Pole to be featured by deep continentality with intolerable low temperatures. The South Poles are higher in elevation than the North Pole and are the coldest place on Earth by far.

(v) Atmospheric circulation:

Strong upper-level westerlies circumnavigate the pole in each hemisphere. Air sinking from upward at the polar high is very cold and ensures that Arctic and Subarctic climates are cold and dry.

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The significance of feedbacks to GCMs and other climate models.

GCMs are the general circulation models. Feedback to a climate model is the way a system responds to the changing conditions. The response acts to amplify that change. These feedbacks are essential to predict the future climate and to understand the complex system.

The importance of feedbacks in climate models are as follows:

(i) The feedbacks are used to predict future climate change.

(ii) The feedbacks are important to predict the behavior of Earth's complex climate system accurately.

(iii) If feedbacks are better to understand, then one can understand the incredibly complex system that controls our climate.

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The favorable factors for the production of geothermal energy.

The favorable factors for the production of geothermal energy are high temperature, shallow depth, faulting regions, and pressure.

Geothermal energy uses the natural heat energy of the Earth as an energy source. The geothermal power plants convert hot water to steam, which further turned into power by electrical generators. The favorable factors for the production of geothermal energy are as follows:

(i) High temperature:

The high-temperature heat up the water. The heated water rise to the surface, which is called hot springs.

(ii) Shallow depth:

The magma present at the shallow depth can heat the water upto 200ºC to 300ºC.

(iii) Pressure:

The confining pressure of the heated water is released, and the hot water flashes into steam. This pressure drives the turbines in the electrical generators.

(iv) Faulting regions:

The regions with recent faulting are the main site for geothermal energy. This is because the faults provide a way to the heated water to rise to the surface.

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The ways by which electricity is produced in hydroelectric dams.

The electricity is produced in hydroelectric dams as the standing water is allowed to fall on the turbine under the force of gravity. The water moves the turbine and converts hydro energy into electrical energy.

The hydroelectric dams produce energy from the water. The dams convert hydro energy into electrical energy. The ways by which electricity is produced are as follows:

(i) The water is captured from the rivers and streams in a reservoir behind the dam.

(ii) The standing water has potential energy. The water is allowed to fall on the turbines or blades of the electrical generator.

(iii) The turbines move and produce electrical energy. The amount of energy is produced is related to the velocity and volume of the water passing through the turbine.

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The ways by which electricity is produced using nuclear power.

The process of nuclear fission produces electricity. During this process, an unstable isotope of a radioactive element is divided into two parts. During the division, energy is liberated in the form of electricity.

The ways by which electricity is produced using nuclear plant are as follows:

(i) Uranium is a large and heavy element having an atomic mass of 238. The isotope of uranium element is used to produce energy.

(ii) When a uranium atom splits, it releases a large amount of energy in the form of heat.

(iii) The heat produced by fission converts water to steam. The steam is further used to turn the turbines in electrical generators.

(iv) The steam released does not contain any radioactive materials. Therefore, in this way electricity is produced using nuclear plants.

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The ways by which electricity is produced from solar energy.

The photovoltaic panels convert solar energy into electrical energy. It absorbs the active solar light and passive solar lights. The passive solar panel does not use any moving parts. The active solar uses some moving parts such as a fan for moving heated air.

The electricity produced from solar energy  is explained as follows:

(i) The passive solar energy enters a space through the glass window. It is naturally heating the inside air.

(ii) The solar panel absorbs the passive energy and converts it into electrical energy. They produce non-polluting and renewable energy.

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The ways by which electricity is produced from wind energy.

The energy of wind is converted into electrical energy with the help of wind turbines. They move due to the pressure of wind and produce electricity. The electricity is stored in the generator for future use.

The ways by which electricity is produced from wind energy are described as follows:

(i) The blowing wind moves the wind turbine.

(ii) Each wind turbine has an electrical generator. The energy of wind is converted into electrical energy by the movement of the turbine.

(iii) The electrical energy is stored in the generator. The electricity produced by means of wind energy is non-polluted and renewable source of energy.