Direction and reasoning of causality in the following cases: (a) If the number of police force rises with a simultaneous decline in the crime rates and if higher crime rates lead to a higher number of the police force. (b) If a nation who wants to win a Nobel prize could eat more chocolate when there is a strong positive correlation between Nobel prize-winning and chocolate consumption. (c) When the muscles mass and strength between the elders who live independently are lower than the elderly athletes who exercise regularly and live a healthier life.

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Chapter 2, Problem 5P

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Direction and reasoning of causality in the following cases:

(a) If the number of police force rises with a simultaneous decline in the crime rates and if higher crime rates lead to a higher number of the police force.

(b) If a nation who wants to win a Nobel prize could eat more chocolate when there is a strong positive correlation between Nobel prize-winning and chocolate consumption.

(c) When the muscles mass and strength between the elders who live independently are lower than the elderly athletes who exercise regularly and live a healthier life.

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