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Human Anatomy & Physiology (11th Edition)
Human Anatomy & Physiology (11th Edition)
11th Edition
ISBN:9780134580999
Author:Elaine N. Marieb, Katja N. Hoehn
Publisher:Elaine N. Marieb, Katja N. Hoehn
Chapter1: The Human Body: An Orientation
Section: Chapter Questions
Problem 1RQ: The correct sequence of levels forming the structural hierarchy is A. (a) organ, organ system,...
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11:52 p. m. Mar 28 mar. 198 PART TWO Radiographic Positioning and Related Anatomy C RtL B web.whatsapp.com D LeL VD DV FIGURE 18-15 Effects of positional changes as shown in the canine stomach. A, Right lateral (RL); gas is in the fundus (F) and dorsal body of the stomach (B). B, Left lateral (lel); gas is in the main body, pyloric antrum (A) and canal (P), and duodenum. C, Ventrodorsal (VD); gas is in the pyloric antrum, body of the stomach, and descending duodenum. D, Dorsoventral (DV); gas is in the fundus and cardia (C). one can see that the gas rises to the highest point and fluid moves into the gravity-dependent portion. Fluid gastric con- tents move to the dependent portion of the lumen and gas to the uppermost portion whether in a lateral or DV/VD position (Figure 18-15). In the right lateral view, the gas rises to the uppermost body and fundus, which are on the patient's left side (Figure 18-16). In the left lateral view, gas is in the pylorus, which on the patient's right side. In the VD view, the gas is in the body near the midline and pyloric antrum, so when the position is a DV view, the gas rises to the cardia and the fundus.68 TECHNICIAN NOTES To remember the location of the gas in the stomach: For the DV view, think of "Da fundus" (D being the first letter of DV and Da sounding like "the"). Small Intestine6,16 The small intestine is found in the mid-abdomen. The diam- eter should be no wider than twice the width of a rib in a dog and "twice the height of the central portion of the L4 vertebral body" in the cat. There are three parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum originates at the pylorus, courses cranially R FIGURE 18-16 Right lateral radiograph showing the air in the fundus and body of the stomach and barium in the pyloric region and the duodenum. Further contrast studies can be found in Chapter 25. 1 to 2 inches then caudally along the right body wall to the level of L5-L6. It then courses cranially as a midline structure when viewed in the VD position. The duodenum is described as having a proximal duodenal flexor, a descend- ing duodenum, a caudal duodenal flexor, and an ascending duodenum. In dogs, depressions of mucosa are seen in the duode- num; they are called "pseudo-ulcers" because they mimic the appearance of ulcers. The duodenum of the cat is often visualized as segmented because of the muscular (peri- staltic) activity, which gives it an almost "string-of-pearls" appearance (See Figure 25-12). The jejunum is in the mid-abdominal region and is easier seen if there is fat in the mesentery, omentum, or the falci- form ligament, and if there is gas in the bowel. The ileum, which is the terminal portion of the small bowel, enters the colon at the ileocolic junction to the right of the midline. In the VD position, the ileum is normally at the dorsal portion. of the abdomen at the level of L4. Large Intestine6,17 The large intestine is about 16 inches in length in a 40-lb dog and is larger in diameter than the small intestine. It consists of the cecum and the colon, which has ascending, transverse, and descending components. In the ventrodorsal/ dorsoventral position, the colon looks like a question mark. In the lateral view, parts of the colon may either be super- imposed over the stomach, just caudal to the left crus of the diaphragm, or over the cardia of the stomach. The cecum of the dog is generally found to the right of midline in the VD view, adjacent to L2-L4, and in the central abdomen for the lateral view. It has a corkscrew or curved appearance in dogs and is often gas-filled. In the cat the cecum is not usually seen because it is very small. In contrast studies, it appears as a single V-shaped pouch entering the colon. 46 %
Transcribed Image Text:11:52 p. m. Mar 28 mar. 198 PART TWO Radiographic Positioning and Related Anatomy C RtL B web.whatsapp.com D LeL VD DV FIGURE 18-15 Effects of positional changes as shown in the canine stomach. A, Right lateral (RL); gas is in the fundus (F) and dorsal body of the stomach (B). B, Left lateral (lel); gas is in the main body, pyloric antrum (A) and canal (P), and duodenum. C, Ventrodorsal (VD); gas is in the pyloric antrum, body of the stomach, and descending duodenum. D, Dorsoventral (DV); gas is in the fundus and cardia (C). one can see that the gas rises to the highest point and fluid moves into the gravity-dependent portion. Fluid gastric con- tents move to the dependent portion of the lumen and gas to the uppermost portion whether in a lateral or DV/VD position (Figure 18-15). In the right lateral view, the gas rises to the uppermost body and fundus, which are on the patient's left side (Figure 18-16). In the left lateral view, gas is in the pylorus, which on the patient's right side. In the VD view, the gas is in the body near the midline and pyloric antrum, so when the position is a DV view, the gas rises to the cardia and the fundus.68 TECHNICIAN NOTES To remember the location of the gas in the stomach: For the DV view, think of "Da fundus" (D being the first letter of DV and Da sounding like "the"). Small Intestine6,16 The small intestine is found in the mid-abdomen. The diam- eter should be no wider than twice the width of a rib in a dog and "twice the height of the central portion of the L4 vertebral body" in the cat. There are three parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum originates at the pylorus, courses cranially R FIGURE 18-16 Right lateral radiograph showing the air in the fundus and body of the stomach and barium in the pyloric region and the duodenum. Further contrast studies can be found in Chapter 25. 1 to 2 inches then caudally along the right body wall to the level of L5-L6. It then courses cranially as a midline structure when viewed in the VD position. The duodenum is described as having a proximal duodenal flexor, a descend- ing duodenum, a caudal duodenal flexor, and an ascending duodenum. In dogs, depressions of mucosa are seen in the duode- num; they are called "pseudo-ulcers" because they mimic the appearance of ulcers. The duodenum of the cat is often visualized as segmented because of the muscular (peri- staltic) activity, which gives it an almost "string-of-pearls" appearance (See Figure 25-12). The jejunum is in the mid-abdominal region and is easier seen if there is fat in the mesentery, omentum, or the falci- form ligament, and if there is gas in the bowel. The ileum, which is the terminal portion of the small bowel, enters the colon at the ileocolic junction to the right of the midline. In the VD position, the ileum is normally at the dorsal portion. of the abdomen at the level of L4. Large Intestine6,17 The large intestine is about 16 inches in length in a 40-lb dog and is larger in diameter than the small intestine. It consists of the cecum and the colon, which has ascending, transverse, and descending components. In the ventrodorsal/ dorsoventral position, the colon looks like a question mark. In the lateral view, parts of the colon may either be super- imposed over the stomach, just caudal to the left crus of the diaphragm, or over the cardia of the stomach. The cecum of the dog is generally found to the right of midline in the VD view, adjacent to L2-L4, and in the central abdomen for the lateral view. It has a corkscrew or curved appearance in dogs and is often gas-filled. In the cat the cecum is not usually seen because it is very small. In contrast studies, it appears as a single V-shaped pouch entering the colon. 46 %
11:52 p. m. Mar 28 mar. U Blackboard... 260 de 633 xblob:https://... web.whatsapp.com Tips for mas... The ascending colon is to the right of midline and is found dorsally. The ascending colon is often indented along the medial wall adjacent to the cecum, at the site where the ileum enters the ascending colon. This is known as the ileo- colonic sphincter. The transverse colon appears circular in configuration and lies caudal to the stomach. In the lateral view, the transverse colon can often be mistaken for a mass lesion. The descending colon generally lies adjacent to the left body wall, but it may change position to either the midline or the right side in the mid- and distal regions, especially if the animal is obese, the intestine is full of fecal matter, or the urinary bladder is distended. The rectum is located in the pelvic canal. Pancreas 6,7 ormal pancreas is visualized radiographically. Even pancreatitis may not show any radiographic abnormalities but may cause organ displacements. The right limb of the pancreas lies adjacent and caudal to the caudal margin of the stomach. The left portion is medial to and beside the descending duodenum. Ultrasonography is a better tool to identify a diseased pancreas. Evaluation of the Urogenital System, Adrenal Glands, and Abdominal Lymph Nodes Kidneys6,11 The kidneys are soft-tissue opacities found in the retroperi- toneal space. Canine kidneys are elongated, and feline kidneys are short and round. In the dog the right kidney is usually found between T12 and L2, and in the cat between L1 and L3. The left kidney position, which can be more vari- able, is between L2 and L4 in the dog and L3 and L5 in the cat. Normal kidney size is generally judged in the VD view with the use of L2 as a comparison. In the dog, the normal kidney should be 2½ to 3½ times the length of L2, and in the cat, 2 to 3 times. However, this observation is a guideline only, because there are variations with factors such as age, size, sex and blood pressure. The kidneys may be displaced caudally by a full stomach or cranially by an enlarged uterus. Both kidneys are usually identifiable on the feline radio- graph. The left kidney is seen in most dogs with normal body condition, but only the caudal pole of the right kidney can be seen on a lateral radiograph and the organ is usually not seen at all in the VD radiograph. On the right lateral radiograph, the left kidney will be displaced from its dorsal position; it may be in the mid-abdomen and is often more visible than on a left lateral radiograph, especially in cats and obese dogs, in which there is more perirenal and retroperitoneal fat. The margins of the kidneys should be smooth and of homogenous soft-tissue opacity. If a unilateral renal lesion is suspected, place the abnormal kidney in the upper posi- tion. It will be more "bean-shaped" because the upper kidney rotates on the longitudinal axis. This rotation allows that region, which is well covered with fat, to be presented. G importancia... nurse Take a Bite... CHAPTER 18 Small Animal Abdomen + ódulos / C... ogía o... 199 tangentially to the x-ray beam. The increased object-film distance makes it appear more magnified as well. Adrenal Glands6,7 Normal adrenal glands are not generally visualized on the radiograph, being better viewed on ultrasound and CT scan- ning. They are located in the retroperitoneal space just cra- niomedial to each kidney. Urinary Bladder6,12 The urinary bladder is found in the caudoventral abdomen ventral to the rectum and descending colon. In the dog, the caudally facing neck of this pear-shaped organ is cranial to the pubis. In the cat, the bladder is more rounded and slightly more cranial. cra- A distended bladder may displace abdomina nially and the descending colon to right. An empty urinary bladder may not be visible, but if it contains urine, it may be seen on either the left or right side or centered on the midline. Uterus and Ovaries¹0 The uterus and ovaries are not normally visualized on survey radiographs, although the body of the uterus may sometimes be visible between the bladder neck and colon in obese animals. The uterus is usually visualized only if it is abnor- mally large or gravid. Fetal skeletons become visible at approximately 42- to 45 days of gestation. Urethra and Ureters6,11,13 Neither the urethra or the ureters are visible on a radiograph without contrast media. The female urethra is shorter and wider than that of the male. The male urethra is long and thin. The canine male urethra consists of three parts while the feline urethra has two parts. The ureters are in the retro- peritoneal space and if injected with contrast media should not be larger than 2 to 3 mm. Prostate Gland and Testicles6,14,15 The prostate is found in the pelvic canal and is not visible radiographically in the cat. In older dogs it may lie within the abdomen, as it may in young dogs when pulled cranially by a full urinary bladder. The prostate diameter in the dog should be no greater than two-thirds the width of the pelvic inlet on the VD view. The testicles are not normally evalu- ated with conventional radiography. Abdominal Lymph Nodes Abdominal lymph nodes are not normally visualized but may be seen if there is a considerable increase in size or a change in opacity. Ultrasound is an excellent modality to evaluate lymph nodes (see the description in Chapter 13). 46% NOTE For information on alternate modes of imaging, please see Sections 3 and 4 in Part One. Further images available on line.
Transcribed Image Text:11:52 p. m. Mar 28 mar. U Blackboard... 260 de 633 xblob:https://... web.whatsapp.com Tips for mas... The ascending colon is to the right of midline and is found dorsally. The ascending colon is often indented along the medial wall adjacent to the cecum, at the site where the ileum enters the ascending colon. This is known as the ileo- colonic sphincter. The transverse colon appears circular in configuration and lies caudal to the stomach. In the lateral view, the transverse colon can often be mistaken for a mass lesion. The descending colon generally lies adjacent to the left body wall, but it may change position to either the midline or the right side in the mid- and distal regions, especially if the animal is obese, the intestine is full of fecal matter, or the urinary bladder is distended. The rectum is located in the pelvic canal. Pancreas 6,7 ormal pancreas is visualized radiographically. Even pancreatitis may not show any radiographic abnormalities but may cause organ displacements. The right limb of the pancreas lies adjacent and caudal to the caudal margin of the stomach. The left portion is medial to and beside the descending duodenum. Ultrasonography is a better tool to identify a diseased pancreas. Evaluation of the Urogenital System, Adrenal Glands, and Abdominal Lymph Nodes Kidneys6,11 The kidneys are soft-tissue opacities found in the retroperi- toneal space. Canine kidneys are elongated, and feline kidneys are short and round. In the dog the right kidney is usually found between T12 and L2, and in the cat between L1 and L3. The left kidney position, which can be more vari- able, is between L2 and L4 in the dog and L3 and L5 in the cat. Normal kidney size is generally judged in the VD view with the use of L2 as a comparison. In the dog, the normal kidney should be 2½ to 3½ times the length of L2, and in the cat, 2 to 3 times. However, this observation is a guideline only, because there are variations with factors such as age, size, sex and blood pressure. The kidneys may be displaced caudally by a full stomach or cranially by an enlarged uterus. Both kidneys are usually identifiable on the feline radio- graph. The left kidney is seen in most dogs with normal body condition, but only the caudal pole of the right kidney can be seen on a lateral radiograph and the organ is usually not seen at all in the VD radiograph. On the right lateral radiograph, the left kidney will be displaced from its dorsal position; it may be in the mid-abdomen and is often more visible than on a left lateral radiograph, especially in cats and obese dogs, in which there is more perirenal and retroperitoneal fat. The margins of the kidneys should be smooth and of homogenous soft-tissue opacity. If a unilateral renal lesion is suspected, place the abnormal kidney in the upper posi- tion. It will be more "bean-shaped" because the upper kidney rotates on the longitudinal axis. This rotation allows that region, which is well covered with fat, to be presented. G importancia... nurse Take a Bite... CHAPTER 18 Small Animal Abdomen + ódulos / C... ogía o... 199 tangentially to the x-ray beam. The increased object-film distance makes it appear more magnified as well. Adrenal Glands6,7 Normal adrenal glands are not generally visualized on the radiograph, being better viewed on ultrasound and CT scan- ning. They are located in the retroperitoneal space just cra- niomedial to each kidney. Urinary Bladder6,12 The urinary bladder is found in the caudoventral abdomen ventral to the rectum and descending colon. In the dog, the caudally facing neck of this pear-shaped organ is cranial to the pubis. In the cat, the bladder is more rounded and slightly more cranial. cra- A distended bladder may displace abdomina nially and the descending colon to right. An empty urinary bladder may not be visible, but if it contains urine, it may be seen on either the left or right side or centered on the midline. Uterus and Ovaries¹0 The uterus and ovaries are not normally visualized on survey radiographs, although the body of the uterus may sometimes be visible between the bladder neck and colon in obese animals. The uterus is usually visualized only if it is abnor- mally large or gravid. Fetal skeletons become visible at approximately 42- to 45 days of gestation. Urethra and Ureters6,11,13 Neither the urethra or the ureters are visible on a radiograph without contrast media. The female urethra is shorter and wider than that of the male. The male urethra is long and thin. The canine male urethra consists of three parts while the feline urethra has two parts. The ureters are in the retro- peritoneal space and if injected with contrast media should not be larger than 2 to 3 mm. Prostate Gland and Testicles6,14,15 The prostate is found in the pelvic canal and is not visible radiographically in the cat. In older dogs it may lie within the abdomen, as it may in young dogs when pulled cranially by a full urinary bladder. The prostate diameter in the dog should be no greater than two-thirds the width of the pelvic inlet on the VD view. The testicles are not normally evalu- ated with conventional radiography. Abdominal Lymph Nodes Abdominal lymph nodes are not normally visualized but may be seen if there is a considerable increase in size or a change in opacity. Ultrasound is an excellent modality to evaluate lymph nodes (see the description in Chapter 13). 46% NOTE For information on alternate modes of imaging, please see Sections 3 and 4 in Part One. Further images available on line.
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