Chinese and Japanese Views of Christianity n China and Japan, the political and social struc- tures of the two empires led to quite different outcomes when Jesuit missionaries tried to con- vert social and political elites to Christianity. In China, where the number of converts was quite small, Ming officials weretolerant of theforeign faith in spite of criticisms such as those expressed by Kirishitan (i.e, "Christians") grew. At the same time, however, the ambitious general Toyotomi Hideyoshi, aspiring to the unification of Japan, regarded the Japanese Christians and their missionary sponsors as a threat. In 1587 he issued the edicts reproduced here restricting conversion activities and banning foreign missionaries. While Hideyoshi put no constraints on European trade, Tokugawa shoguns later severely re- stricted Europeans of all backgrounds from entering the country. Confucian intellectuals in the first document below. Such toleration of Christianity lasted into the Qing period until 1715, when the church reversed Matteo Ricci's policy by declaring that Confucian rites were incompatible with Christianity. Emperor Kangxi was furious: "To judge from this proclamation, their re- ligion is no different from other small, bigoted sects Sources: Excerpt from Jacques Gernet, China and the Christian Impact: A Confict of Cultures, Cambridge University Press, 1986, pp. 39-40, 53, 82, 107, 108, 120, 159, 169. Reprinted with permission of Cambridge University Press; English translation copyright© 1997 by David J. Lu. From Japan: A Documentary History ed. David J. Lu (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), Pp. 196–197. Used with pemission of M. E. Sharpe, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Not for reproduction. of Buddhism." In 1721 he banned Christians from preaching in his empire. In Japan, the less centralized political structure at firstworked to the Jesuits' advantage. Theyconverted a number of daimyo, and the numbers of Japanese Chinese Commentarles on Christlanlty 3) [The Ming emperor] sacrifices to Heaven and to Earth; the princes sacrifice to the moun- tains and rtvers within the domains; holders of high office sacrifice to the ancestral temple of the founder of their lineage; gentlemen. andordinary individuals sacrifice to the tables of their own fimmediate] ancestors. ... In this way ... there is an order in the sacrifices that cannot be upset. To suggest that each person should revere a single Master of Heaven and represent Heaven by means of statues before which one prays each day...is it not to pro- fane Heaven by making unseemly requests? 4) In their kingdom they recognize two sov- ereigns. One is the political sovereign [the king] the other is the doctrinal sovereign. [the pope].... It comes down to having two suns in the sky, two masters in a single kingdom. ... What audacity it is on the part of these calamitous Barbarians who would like to upset the [political and moral] unity of China by introducing the Barbar- lan concept of the two sovereigns! 5) We Confucians follow a level and unified path.... To abandon all this in crder to rally to this Jeaus who died naled to a cross.. to pros- trate oneself before him and pray with zeal, 1) [The Jesuits] are extremely intelligent. Their studies concern astronomy, the calendar, medicine and mathematics. ... Truly they have the means to win minds.... The only trouble is that it is a pity that they speak of a Master of Heaven, an incorrect and dis- tasteful term which leads them into non- sense.... Our Confucianism has never held that Heaven had a mother or a bodily form, and it has never spoken of events that are supposed to have occurred before and after his birth. Is it not true that herein lies the dif- ference between our Confucianism and their doctrine? 2) The superiority of Western teaching lies in their calculations; their inferiority lies in their veneration of a Master of Heaven of a kind to upset men's minds.... When they require people to consider the Master of Heaven as their closest relative and to aban- don their fathers and mothers and place their sovereign [king] in second place, giv- ing the direction of the state to those who spread the doctrine of the Master of Heaven, this entalls an unprecedented infringement on the most constant rules. How could their doctrine possibly be admissible in China? ... imploring his supernatural ald, that would be madness. And to go so far asto enter darkened halls, wash oneself with holy water and wear amulets about one's person, all that resembles the vicious practices of witchcraft.... 6) Our father is the one who engendered us, our mother the one who raised us. Filial pi- ety consists solely in loving our parents.... Even when one of our parents behaves in a tyrannical fashion, we must try to reason with him or her. Even if a sovereign behaves in an unjust way, we must try to get him to return to human sentiments. How could one justify criticizing one's parents or resist- ing one's sovereign on the grounds of filial piety toward the Master of Heaven? Edicts of Toyotoml Hldeyoshl (1587) I. Limitations on the Propagation of Christianity II. Expulsion of Missionaries 1. Japan is the country of gods, but has been receiving false teachings from Christian coun- tries. This cannot be tolerated any further. 2. The [missionaries] approach people in prov- 1. Whether one desires to become a follower of the padre [Catholic priest] is up to that person's own consclence. 2. If one recelves a province, a district, or a village as his fief, and forces farmers in his domain who are properly registered un- der certain temples to become followers of the padre against their wishes, then he inces and districts to make them their follow- ers, and let them destroy shrines and temples. This is an unheard of outrage. When a vassal recelves a province, a district, a village, or an- other fom of a fief, he must consider it as a property entrusted to him on a temporary basis. He must follow the laws of this coun- try, and abide by their intent. However, some vassals fllegally [donate part of their flefs to the church]. This is a culpable offense. 3. The padres, by their special knowledge fin the sclences and medicine], feel that they can at will entice people to become their believers. In doing so they commit the illegal act of de- stroying the teachings of Buddha prevaling in Japan. These padres cannot be permitted to remain in Japan. They must prepare to leave the country within twenty days of the issu- ance of this notice. has committed a most unreasonable ille- gal act.... 3. Anyone whose fief is over 200 choe and who can expect two to three thousand kane of rice harvest each year must recetve per- mission from the authorities before becom- ing a follower of the padre. 4. Anyone whose flef is smaller than the one described above may, as his conscience dic- tates, select for himself from between elght or nine religions.... 5. If a dalmyo who has a flef over a province, a district, or a village, forces his retainers to be- come followers of the padre, he is committing a [great] crime. ... This will have an adverse effect on [the welfare of] the nation. Anyone who cannot use good judgment in this matter will be punished... 4. The black [Portuguese and Spanish] ships come to Japan to engage in trade. Thus the matter is a separate one. They can continue to engage in trade. 5. Hereafter, anyone who does not hinder the teachings of the Buddha, whether he be a merchant or not, may come and go freely from Christian countries to Japan. "chỗ 245 acres (1 hectare). "kan 8.2 pounds (3.75 kg).

Chinese and Japanese Views of Christianity n China and Japan, the political and social struc- tures of the two empires led to quite different outcomes when Jesuit missionaries tried to con- vert social and political elites to Christianity. In China, where the number of converts was quite small, Ming officials weretolerant of theforeign faith in spite of criticisms such as those expressed by Kirishitan (i.e, "Christians") grew. At the same time, however, the ambitious general Toyotomi Hideyoshi, aspiring to the unification of Japan, regarded the Japanese Christians and their missionary sponsors as a threat. In 1587 he issued the edicts reproduced here restricting conversion activities and banning foreign missionaries. While Hideyoshi put no constraints on European trade, Tokugawa shoguns later severely re- stricted Europeans of all backgrounds from entering the country. Confucian intellectuals in the first document below. Such toleration of Christianity lasted into the Qing period until 1715, when the church reversed Matteo Ricci's policy by declaring that Confucian rites were incompatible with Christianity. Emperor Kangxi was furious: "To judge from this proclamation, their re- ligion is no different from other small, bigoted sects Sources: Excerpt from Jacques Gernet, China and the Christian Impact: A Confict of Cultures, Cambridge University Press, 1986, pp. 39-40, 53, 82, 107, 108, 120, 159, 169. Reprinted with permission of Cambridge University Press; English translation copyright© 1997 by David J. Lu. From Japan: A Documentary History ed. David J. Lu (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), Pp. 196–197. Used with pemission of M. E. Sharpe, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Not for reproduction. of Buddhism." In 1721 he banned Christians from preaching in his empire. In Japan, the less centralized political structure at firstworked to the Jesuits' advantage. Theyconverted a number of daimyo, and the numbers of Japanese Chinese Commentarles on Christlanlty 3) [The Ming emperor] sacrifices to Heaven and to Earth; the princes sacrifice to the moun- tains and rtvers within the domains; holders of high office sacrifice to the ancestral temple of the founder of their lineage; gentlemen. andordinary individuals sacrifice to the tables of their own fimmediate] ancestors. ... In this way ... there is an order in the sacrifices that cannot be upset. To suggest that each person should revere a single Master of Heaven and represent Heaven by means of statues before which one prays each day...is it not to pro- fane Heaven by making unseemly requests? 4) In their kingdom they recognize two sov- ereigns. One is the political sovereign [the king] the other is the doctrinal sovereign. [the pope].... It comes down to having two suns in the sky, two masters in a single kingdom. ... What audacity it is on the part of these calamitous Barbarians who would like to upset the [political and moral] unity of China by introducing the Barbar- lan concept of the two sovereigns! 5) We Confucians follow a level and unified path.... To abandon all this in crder to rally to this Jeaus who died naled to a cross.. to pros- trate oneself before him and pray with zeal, 1) [The Jesuits] are extremely intelligent. Their studies concern astronomy, the calendar, medicine and mathematics. ... Truly they have the means to win minds.... The only trouble is that it is a pity that they speak of a Master of Heaven, an incorrect and dis- tasteful term which leads them into non- sense.... Our Confucianism has never held that Heaven had a mother or a bodily form, and it has never spoken of events that are supposed to have occurred before and after his birth. Is it not true that herein lies the dif- ference between our Confucianism and their doctrine? 2) The superiority of Western teaching lies in their calculations; their inferiority lies in their veneration of a Master of Heaven of a kind to upset men's minds.... When they require people to consider the Master of Heaven as their closest relative and to aban- don their fathers and mothers and place their sovereign [king] in second place, giv- ing the direction of the state to those who spread the doctrine of the Master of Heaven, this entalls an unprecedented infringement on the most constant rules. How could their doctrine possibly be admissible in China? ... imploring his supernatural ald, that would be madness. And to go so far asto enter darkened halls, wash oneself with holy water and wear amulets about one's person, all that resembles the vicious practices of witchcraft.... 6) Our father is the one who engendered us, our mother the one who raised us. Filial pi- ety consists solely in loving our parents.... Even when one of our parents behaves in a tyrannical fashion, we must try to reason with him or her. Even if a sovereign behaves in an unjust way, we must try to get him to return to human sentiments. How could one justify criticizing one's parents or resist- ing one's sovereign on the grounds of filial piety toward the Master of Heaven? Edicts of Toyotoml Hldeyoshl (1587) I. Limitations on the Propagation of Christianity II. Expulsion of Missionaries 1. Japan is the country of gods, but has been receiving false teachings from Christian coun- tries. This cannot be tolerated any further. 2. The [missionaries] approach people in prov- 1. Whether one desires to become a follower of the padre [Catholic priest] is up to that person's own consclence. 2. If one recelves a province, a district, or a village as his fief, and forces farmers in his domain who are properly registered un- der certain temples to become followers of the padre against their wishes, then he inces and districts to make them their follow- ers, and let them destroy shrines and temples. This is an unheard of outrage. When a vassal recelves a province, a district, a village, or an- other fom of a fief, he must consider it as a property entrusted to him on a temporary basis. He must follow the laws of this coun- try, and abide by their intent. However, some vassals fllegally [donate part of their flefs to the church]. This is a culpable offense. 3. The padres, by their special knowledge fin the sclences and medicine], feel that they can at will entice people to become their believers. In doing so they commit the illegal act of de- stroying the teachings of Buddha prevaling in Japan. These padres cannot be permitted to remain in Japan. They must prepare to leave the country within twenty days of the issu- ance of this notice. has committed a most unreasonable ille- gal act.... 3. Anyone whose fief is over 200 choe and who can expect two to three thousand kane of rice harvest each year must recetve per- mission from the authorities before becom- ing a follower of the padre. 4. Anyone whose flef is smaller than the one described above may, as his conscience dic- tates, select for himself from between elght or nine religions.... 5. If a dalmyo who has a flef over a province, a district, or a village, forces his retainers to be- come followers of the padre, he is committing a [great] crime. ... This will have an adverse effect on [the welfare of] the nation. Anyone who cannot use good judgment in this matter will be punished... 4. The black [Portuguese and Spanish] ships come to Japan to engage in trade. Thus the matter is a separate one. They can continue to engage in trade. 5. Hereafter, anyone who does not hinder the teachings of the Buddha, whether he be a merchant or not, may come and go freely from Christian countries to Japan. "chỗ 245 acres (1 hectare). "kan 8.2 pounds (3.75 kg).