An operational-amplifier circuit that may be used as a controller is shown in Figure Qla. Q1 (a) C R4 ww- R2 ww- R3 R1 ej eo Figure Qla R1, R2, R3 and R4 are resistors and C1 and C2 are capacitors. Assume both op-amps are ideal and their input/output voltages are ei, e and eo, as shown in the Figure. Using the impedance approach: obtain the transfer function for each op-amp, i.e. E(s)/E:(s) and Eo(s)/E(s). (i) (ii) hence obtain the complete transfer function for the system, i.e. Eo(s)/Ei(s). Determine D(s) = Eo(s)/E:(s) when RI = R2 = R3 = R4 = 1Q and C1=1 F, C2= 2 F. (iii)

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Digital to Analog Converters

Digital to analog converters are commonly known as DAC, digital analog converter, D2A, or Digital-to-Analog converters. DACs are one of the important devices used in the electronics and electrical domain. DACs are the systems that convert a digital signal into an analog signal, whereas an analog to digital converter or ADC performs the opposite function. Digital signals are those signals that can represent the information or data as a set of discrete values. At a particular instant of time, a digital signal can only take a particular value of data. A digital signal is characterized by two unique values; zeros and ones, or true and false, represented by the Boolean domain. These are also known as binary signals or logic signals. Unlike digital signals, an analog signal is represented by continuous values, where at any time instant, the analog signal is represented by a real number.