0.36 Gender and number words: Chang, Sandhofer, and Brown (2011) wondered whether mothers used num- ber words more, on average, with their preschool sons than with their preschool daughters. Each participat- ing family included one mother and one child-either female or male. They speculated that early exposure to more number words might predispose children to like mathematics. They reported the following: "An inde- pendent-samples t test revealed statistically significant differences in the percentages of overall numeric speech used when interacting with boys compared with girls, 2.40, p <.05, d = .88. That is, mothers used number terms with boys an average of 9.49% of utter- 6.78%) compared with 4.64% of utter- (30) = ances (SD ances with girls (SD = 4.43%)" (pp. 444-445). %3D Is this a between-groups or within-groups design? Explain your answer. 1. b. What is the independent variable? What is the dependent variable? How many children were in the total sample?, Explain how you determined this. d. Is the sample likely randomly selected? s it likely that the researchers used random assignment? Were the researchers able to reject the null hypoth- eNis? Explain. Whit can voT SaN abour the size of the effect? Describe how you could design an esperment to test whether Exposure to more number words in preschool leds chikdren te like mathematies ore Mhen they eurer school

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Estimation

A new framework of data analysis where the new statistical methods are used for interpreting the results and analyzing the data is known as estimation in statistics.