Christian Theology of Religion Assignment
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Christian Theology of Religion Assignment
(Exploring Christian Apologetics of Islam)
Andrew Pedde
APOL 525-B01
October 8, 2023
Contents
Introduction………………………..…..…………………………………………….3
The History of Islam and their Beliefs………………………………….………..….4
Christian Apologetics of Islam………………………………………………….…...6
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..12
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………..…….13
ii
Introduction
This paper aims to delve into the relationship between Muslims and the Islamic faith,
shedding light on how misconceptions and stereotypes have unfairly tainted the perception of
Muslims due to the actions of a minority. Additionally, it will explore an apologetic approach to
sharing the message of Jesus Christ with Muslims.
Christianity's historical encounters with Islam have been marked by profound
misunderstandings and intense confrontations. Over centuries, Islam was often viewed as a
significant, if not the primary, threat to Europe and Western civilization, fostering a perception of
Muslims as adversaries of Christianity.
1
Al-Faruqi further notes that Islam, as a religion that emerged after Christianity, was
sometimes dismissed as a heretical offshoot rather than a legitimate faith. This perspective
further fueled misunderstandings and hostilities.
2
The tragic events of 9/11 exacerbated these tensions, as the perpetrators of the attacks were
Muslim hijackers. This led to widespread mistreatment of Muslims, who were unjustly labeled as
terrorists, causing fear and suspicion to surround them in public spaces.
George Braswell underscores the point that such acts of violence by certain Muslim groups
have added to the negative stereotypes associated with Islam.
3
These incidents, often reported by
the media, including television, the internet, newspapers, and magazines, have contributed to the
pervasive misconceptions about the Islamic faith.
It is essential to remember that God's love extends to Muslims just as it does to anyone else,
and there is a Christian duty to share the gospel with them. Scriptures like 1 Timothy 2:3-4
emphasize God's desire for the salvation and knowledge of truth for all people, while 2 Peter 3:9
1
Isma il R Al-Faruqi and Lois Ibsen,
ʼ
Cultural Atlas of Islam
(New York, NY: MacMillan Publishers, 1986), 132.
2
Ibid., 138.
3
George W Braswell,
Crossroads of Religion and Revolution
(Maitland, FL: Xulon Press, 2012), 59.
3
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underscores His unwillingness for anyone to perish, urging all to repentance. Considering these
principles, it is imperative to approach interactions with Muslims with understanding and a
sincere desire to share the message of Jesus Christ.
The History of Islam and their Beliefs
Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood and Rosalyn Kendrick describe Islam as a belief in the existence
of one God, with Muhammad b. Abdullah, an Arab merchant from the Banu Quraysh (570-632
CE), chosen as His Messenger.
4
In Islamic theology, the term "Allah" is used to refer to God, signifying not merely a name but
a description of the Supreme Being, encompassing attributes such as the Absolute and the
Almighty.
5
At the age of 40, Muhammad received a divine call from the angel Jibril (Gabriel),
marking him as God's messenger. His life thereafter became a model for others, with every
aspect of his actions and words shaping the way Muslims should live.
6
Maqsood and Kendrick outline the six fundamental articles of belief in Islam, which
encompass belief in the oneness of God (tawhid), belief in angels (mala'ikah), belief in divine
books (kutubiyyah), belief in prophets and messengers (risalah), belief in the Day of Judgment
(qiyamah), and belief in destiny or fate (qadar). Muslims hold the belief that Deuteronomy
18:15-18 in the Bible is a reference to Muhammad as the prophesized prophet, distinct from
Jesus, which forms a theological divergence.
7
In Islamic faith, Allah is regarded as the sole, perfect creator, provider, and commander, and
Muslims are obliged to worship and obey Him alone, with the conviction that humans are not
created in the image of Allah.
4
Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood,
Islam
(London, UK: Teach Yourself, 2010), 69.
5
Ibid., 73.
6
William St,
The Sources of Islam
(Edinburgh, SCT: T&T Clark, 1980), 120.
7
Ibid., 86.
4
Allison Morretta highlights the growing issue of Islamophobia in the United States, noting
that Muslims have faced discrimination, especially since the events of 9/11, with pervasive
prejudices infiltrating various aspects of American society.
8
Instances of mistreatment of Muslim
individuals, as witnessed during train travel, demonstrate the impact of these biases.
Andrew Rippin's observations shed light on how Islam is often wrongly perceived as a
monolithic, unchanging entity, when it encompasses diversity, internal debates, and progress.
9
Islam is sometimes viewed as separate from and incompatible with other cultures, rather than
being seen as a religion with shared values and goals.
10
Negative stereotypes portray Islam as
inferior, primitive, and violent, rather than recognizing its distinctiveness and equal worth.
The portrayal of Islam as a political ideology or a source of violence is misguided, overlooking
its genuine religious nature.
11
Critiques of the West by Muslims are sometimes dismissed, rather than being subject to
thoughtful consideration.
12
Hostility towards Islam can lead to discriminatory practices against
Muslims and their exclusion from mainstream society, instead of fostering productive debates
and efforts to combat discrimination.
13
Anti-Muslim hostility is sometimes normalized, rather
than encouraging critical examination of views about Islam for fairness and accuracy. Notably,
Islam itself rejects terrorism, extremism, and violence, emphasizing the sanctity of life, honor,
property, and religious freedom for all, while condemning actions that cause harm to others.
14
Christian Apologetics of Islam
8
Alison Morretta,
Islamophobia: Religious Intolerance against Muslims Today
(Buffalo, NY: Cavendish Square
Publishing, LLC, 2016), 43.
9
Andrew Rippin,
Defining Islam
(Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge Publishers, 2016), 318.
10
Ibid., 318.
11
Ibid., 319.
12
Erwin W Lutzer and Steve Miller,
The Cross in the Shadow of the Crescent
(Eugene, OR: Harvest House
Publishers, 2013), 169.
13
Samuel M Zwemer,
The Disintegration of Islam
(London, UK: Forgotten Books, 2015), 54.
14
Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad,
Muslims in the West: From Sojourners to Citizens
(Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press, 2002), 88.
5
"Christian apologetics" doesn't involve apologizing for being a Christian but originates from
the Greek word "apologia," meaning defense, akin to a reasoned defense given in a court of
law.
15
Christian apologetics encompasses defending the Christian faith against objections and
presenting affirmative reasons for Christianity.
16
This responsibility is incumbent on Christians due to various biblical commands. The Lord
Jesus Christ instructed believers to love God with their entire minds (Matthew 22:37). The
Apostle Peter urged Christians to be prepared to explain the reasons for their hope to others (1
Peter 3:15), while the Apostle Paul emphasized the need to challenge arguments and pretensions
that oppose the knowledge of God (2 Corinthians 10:5).
17
Jocelyne Cesari notes that although the number of converts to Islam in America is not
substantial, they are increasingly influencing the public perception of Islam in the country.
18
Some Latino/Latinas find similarities between traditional Muslim cultures and their own heritage
and values, leading to a growing interest in Islam as a religious alternative. A body of literature
also describes the attraction of Islam and the challenges faced by those who embrace it.
According to Salim Farrar and Ghena Krayem, religious dedication, particularly to Islam,
faces challenges in contemporary secular Western societies.
19
Public opinion polls indicate
decreasing religiosity in these societies, which contrasts with the strong adherence to faith among
ethnic minorities, especially Muslim groups. The paradox is further amplified by instances where
15
Salim Farrar and Ghena Krayem,
Accommodating Muslims under Common Law
(Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge
Publishers, 2016), 39.
16
Harold A Netland,
Encountering Religious Pluralism: The Challenge to Christian Faith & Mission
(Downers
Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2001), 66.
17
Matt W Lee,
Cultural Contextualization of Apologetics
(Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2022), 189.
18
Jocelyne Cesari,
When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the United States
(London, UK:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 42.
19
Salim Farrar and Ghena Krayem,
Accommodating Muslims under Common Law
(Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge
Publishers, 2016), 53.
6
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some groups claiming to share the same faith commit acts of violence in the name of religion,
seemingly contradicting the Muslim advocacy of peaceful coexistence.
20
Farrar and Krayem also highlight various factors contributing to the challenges faced by
Muslims in the West, including President Donald Trump's immigration plans, the emergence of
"Anti-Sharī'ah" bills in state legislatures, anti-Muslim marches, and prominent newspaper
columns questioning the compatibility of Muslims with Western lifestyles.
21
These factors make
addressing social exclusion, discrimination against Muslims, and religious issues a complex
endeavor.
Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad points out that immigrant Muslim American leaders often assert that
Christianity and Islam are monotheistic "religions of the book" with shared origins, prophets, and
values.
22
While they are both monotheistic, they differ in their origins, prophets, and values.
23
Islam began with Muhammad as a prophet, while Christianity originated from the followers of
Jesus Christ, who is considered the Son of God, not a prophet as Muslims view Him. Muslims
acknowledge Jesus but deny His divinity during His earthly life, a viewpoint disputed in Jude 3,
emphasizing the need to contend for the faith delivered to the saints.
24
Mona Siddiqui emphasizes that Muslims reject the crucifixion due to its perceived weakness
and humiliation, deeming it incompatible with God's will and design for society.
25
They do not
accept Jesus as both God and man or the concept of the Trinity. According to Islamic perspective,
20
Salim Farrar and Ghena Krayem,
Accommodating Muslims under Common Law
(Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge
Publishers, 2016), 63.
21
Ibid., 66.
22
Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad,
Muslims in the West: From Sojourners to Citizens
(Oxford, UK : Oxford University
Press, 2002), 89.
23
Daniel Janosik and Peter G Riddell,
John of Damascus, First Apologist to the Muslims: The Trinity and Christian
Apologetics in the Early Islamic Period
(Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2016), 221.
24
Daniel Janosik,
The Guide to Answering Islam: What Every Christian Needs to Know about Islam and the Rise
of Radical Islam
(Cambridge, OH: Christian Publishing House, 2019), 178.
25
Mona Siddiqui,
Christians, Muslims, and Jesus.
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 93.
7
the cross holds little religious significance as Jesus' crucifixion is largely denied, and He is
regarded as a prophet like Muhammad.
Samuel Zwemer highlights that in Muslim thought, the prominence of their own Prophet,
Muhammad, has overshadowed Jesus Christ.
26
While the Quran includes a portrayal of Jesus, it
is limited and often considered a caricature. Most Muslims have limited knowledge and interest
in Jesus Christ. Although there are some similarities between Islam and Christianity, they
fundamentally differ in their thought processes. Islam focuses on law rather than theology, and
Muslim society operates based on ideology.
27
Historically, there has been debate among missiologists on how to approach the Muslim mind.
In the nineteenth century, the preferred approach was polemic, involving the critique of Islam to
undermine its beliefs. Islam is governed by the Shari`ah, which regulates every aspect of
Muslims' lives, setting forth religious and legal principles.
28
"Islam" is derived from an Arabic
word signifying "submission," and "Muslim" means "one who submits.” "Aslama" implies
making peace, surrendering, or submitting. To Muslims, this signifies that every facet of life
should be lived in submission to God.
29
In both Christianity and Islam, the concept of submission to God is emphasized.
30
James 4:7
in the Bible advises Christians to "Submit yourselves, then, to God. Resist the devil, and he will
flee from you." This notion of submitting to God is an integral part of Jesus' teachings on
discipleship and the kingdom of God. Both Christians and Muslims value serving God, though
they hold differing perspectives on what this entails. To effectively communicate with Muslims,
Christians should grasp Islam's five foundational principles:
31
26
Samuel M Zwemer,
The Disintegration of Islam
(London, UK: Forgotten Books, 2015), 63.
27
Ibid., 85.
28
Chris Hewer,
Understanding Islam: An Introduction
(Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2006), 73.
29
Ibid., 143.
30
James L Garlow,
A Christian’s Response to Islam
(Colorado Springs, CO: Victor Publishers, 2005), 144.
31
Isma il R Al-Faruqi and Lois Ibsen,
ʼ
Cultural Atlas of Islam
(New York, NY: MacMillan Publishers, 1986), 231.
8
1.
Complete Transcendence:
Muslims believe that God is fundamentally different from
contingent beings. They see God as unknowable. In contrast, Christians believe that God is
knowable, as expressed in passages like John 1:18 and John 14:7, which highlight the closeness
between God, Jesus Christ, and believers.
32
2.
Human Goodness:
Muslims generally believe that humans are inherently "good" and
"pure," albeit "weak" and "forgetful." They attribute human sin to ethical misperception rather
than inherent sinfulness. In contrast, the Bible portrays human sinfulness, emphasizing the need
for redemption through Jesus Christ.
33
3.
Divine Guidance:
Muslims rely on the Shari’ah, considered God's law, for guidance.
Christians believe in the redemptive work of Jesus, as mentioned in Romans 8:3, to address
human sin and provide guidance.
34
4.
Community of Submission:
In Islam, there is no separation between religious and secular
spheres, fostering a universal community representing God's kingdom on Earth.
5.
"Heavenly" Culture:
Muslims view Islamic culture as divinely inspired.
When witnessing to Muslims, patience and time are essential, as highlighted in 2 Timothy
2:24-25. Building a friendship and engaging in open conversations about beliefs can create a
conducive environment for sharing personal stories and the Christian message.
35
Effective
presentations should encompass the holiness of God, the fallen nature of humanity, the need for
redemption, the substitutionary death and resurrection of Christ, the exclusive path to salvation,
and the Christian hope of eternal life.
32
Carl Medearis,
Muslims, Christians, and Jesus: Gaining Understanding and Building Relationships
(Minneapolis, MN: Bethany House, 2008), 182.
33
Nabeel Qureshi,
Seeking Allah, Finding Jesus: A Devout Muslim Encounters Christianity
(Grand Rapids, MI:
Zondervan, 2018), 163.
34
Phil Parshall,
Muslim Evangelism: Evangelical Approaches to Contextualization
(Grand Rapids, MI: Biblica,
2003), 190.
35
Margaret Cormack,
Muslims and Others in Sacred Space
(Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2013), 168.
9
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In addition, it's important to note that there may be differing perspectives on religious
outreach. While some may criticize Christianizing efforts, it's crucial to understand that similar
attempts to promote Islam also occur. Such criticisms sometimes stem from concerns about
cultural imperialism and perceived efforts to dominate. A nuanced approach is necessary to foster
understanding and respectful dialogue between different faith traditions.
36
It's crucial to present the gospel within the context of Muslim beliefs, a concept often referred
to as "culture-specific apologetics."
37
This approach aims to explain and defend the gospel while
considering the cultural perspective of Muslims. As J.H. Bavinck noted, the goal is to allow for a
comparison between the new message and the old beliefs.
38
According to Bruce Nicholls, the biblical concept of the kingdom of God can effectively
address both the religious and cultural needs of Muslims. This concept can provide common
ground for discussing the importance of submitting to God, exploring Islam's fundamental
assumptions, and presenting and defending the gospel.
39
The kingdom of God, established through the life, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus
Christ, serves as a central theme. It represents the reign of Jesus as the promised Messiah and
King, who will ultimately rule the earth. The Kingdom of God is also present in the hearts of
those who have surrendered to Jesus as their Lord and Savior and anticipate His second coming,
which will bring the Kingdom to its fullness.
Emphasizing the belief that, at the rapture, Jesus will resurrect those who have committed
their lives to Him is crucial. They will reign with Him for eternity, while those who have not
accepted Him will face condemnation. In presenting the gospel to Muslims, it's essential to
36
Sayyid Qu
b and International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations,
t
The Religion of Islam
(Salimiah,
KW: International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations, 1982), 243.
37
Matt W Lee,
Cultural Contextualization of Apologetics
(Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2022), 185.
38
J. H. Bavinck,
An Introduction to the Science of Missions
(Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing, 1960), 149.
39
Bruce Nicholls,
From Groaning to Liberation
(Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2022), 156.
10
clarify that Christians are not claiming to be perfect after accepting Christ. Instead, they
acknowledge their continued shortcomings. The distinction lies in the forgiveness of sins through
Jesus Christ's sacrifice. The aim is not to criticize or condemn Islam or to assert Christian
superiority. Instead, it challenges claims of Islamic superiority, as seen from a Christian
perspective, which may be considered blasphemous.
John Azumah suggests that the Christian response to Islamic challenges should focus on
correcting misunderstandings rather than attacking Islamic beliefs.
40
Christians are called to be
witnesses to the transformative power of the gospel, not defenders seeking revenge.
In this context, emphasizing God's love and grace becomes essential. Islam primarily
emphasizes submission to God rather than a fatherly relationship. However, Christians believe in
God's love and the opportunity for a personal relationship with Him through faith in Jesus, which
can lead to forgiveness, adoption into God's family, and the privilege of addressing God as
"Father."
Conclusion
In conclusion, emphasizing the Kingdom of God is crucial in presenting the gospel to
Muslims. Christians should make it clear that their aim is not to convert the world to Christianity
in the same way that Muslims seek to spread Islam. Christians prioritize defending the gospel
above all else, as stated in Philippians 3:20, highlighting their heavenly citizenship.
Building genuine friendships and demonstrating love towards Muslims is imperative.
Creating a loving relationship fosters openness to hearing the gospel message. It's essential to
debunk the misconception that Christians love Jews but harbor animosity towards Muslims. True
40
John Azumah and Dr Kwame Bediako,
My Neighbour’s Faith: Islam Explained for Christians
(Grand Rapids,
MI: Zondervan, 2019), 145.
11
Christian love extends to people of all races, nationalities, ethnicities, cultures, and religions, as
emphasized in 1 Corinthians 13:1-2.
When ministering to Muslims, Christians should consider the immense pressure they face
from their families and communities to remain committed to Islam. Converting to Christianity
can lead to severe consequences, including isolation from loved ones or even death. Thus,
patience and prayerfulness are essential as Muslims weigh the decision to follow Jesus amidst
these challenges. It's important to be aware of aspects of Sharia Law that pertain to conversion,
including the severe penalties for leaving Islam or criticizing the Quran and Muhammad.
Understanding these realities helps Christians navigate sensitive conversations with Muslim
friends.
Highlighting the uniqueness of Jesus Christ's resurrection sets Christianity apart from other
religions. While the founders of various religions remain in the grave, Jesus' resurrection
validates His claims to deity. As He declared in John 11:25-26, "I am the resurrection and the
life; he who believes in Me shall live even if he dies, and everyone who lives and believes in Me
shall never die."
Bibliography
Al-Faruqi, Isma il R, and Lois Ibsen.
ʼ
Cultural Atlas of Islam
. New York, NY: MacMillan
Publishers, 1986.
Azumah, John, and Dr Kwame Bediako.
My Neighbour’s Faith: Islam Explained for Christians
.
Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2019.
Bavinck, J. H.
An Introduction to the Science of Missions
. Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing,
1960.
Braswell, George W.
Crossroads of Religion and Revolution
. Maitland, FL: Xulon Press, 2012.
Cormack, Margaret.
Muslims and Others in Sacred Space
. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press,
2013.
12
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Farrar, Salim, and Ghena Krayem.
Accommodating Muslims under Common Law
. Oxfordshire,
UK: Routledge Publishers, 2016.
Garlow, James L.
A Christian’s Response to Islam
. Colorado Springs, CO: Victor Publishers,
2005.
Hewer, Chris.
Understanding Islam: An Introduction
. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2006.
Janosik, Daniel.
The Guide to Answering Islam: What Every Christian Needs to Know about
Islam and the Rise of Radical Islam
. Cambridge, OH: Christian Publishing House, 2019.
Janosik, Daniel, and Peter G Riddell.
John of Damascus, First Apologist to the Muslims: The
Trinity and Christian Apologetics in the Early Islamic Period
. Eugene, OR: Pickwick
Publications, 2016.
Jocelyne Cesari.
When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the United States
.
London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Lee, Matt W.
Cultural Contextualization of Apologetics
. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers,
2022.
Lutzer, Erwin W, and Steve Miller.
The Cross in the Shadow of the Crescent
. Eugene, OR:
Harvest House Publishers, 2013.
Medearis, Carl.
Muslims, Christians, and Jesus: Gaining Understanding and Building
Relationships
. Minneapolis, MN: Bethany House, 2008.
Morretta, Alison.
Islamophobia: Religious Intolerance against Muslims Today
. Buffalo, NY:
Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC, 2016.
Nabeel Qureshi.
Seeking Allah, Finding Jesus: A Devout Muslim Encounters Christianity
. Grand
Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2018.
Netland, Harold A.
Encountering Religious Pluralism: The Challenge to Christian Faith &
Mission
. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2001.
Nicholls, Bruce.
From Groaning to Liberation
. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2022.
Parshall, Phil.
Muslim Evangelism: Evangelical Approaches to Contextualization
. Grand Rapids,
MI: Biblica, 2003.
Rippin, Andrew.
Defining Islam
. Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge Publishers, 2016.
Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood.
Islam
. London, UK: Teach Yourself, 2010.
Sayyid Qu
b, and International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations.
t
The Religion of
Islam
. Salimiah, KW: International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations, 1982.
13
Siddiqui, Mona.
Christians, Muslims, and Jesus.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014.
St, William.
The Sources of Islam
. Edinburgh, SCT: T&T Clark, 1980.
Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad.
Muslims in the West: From Sojourners to Citizens
. Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press, 2002.
Zwemer, Samuel M.
The Disintegration of Islam
. London, UK: Forgotten Books, 2015.
14