Psychology of Sexuality

Psychology of Sexuality Lecture 2: Perspectives on Human Sexuality Why do we have sex: pleasure, procreation, income, expression, bonding in relationship, etc. There were 327 unique reasons why people have sex. They made 4 categories: - Physical - Emotional - Insecurity - Goal orientated. One of the infrequent reasons was to have a child. Sex is caused by an interplay of: - Psychology - Social surroundings - Biology Psych. Perspectives: Psychoanalytic Freud Sigmund Human behaviour was driven with two primary motivations - Libido: sex/life drive: To build, socialize, reproduce, grow, nurture - Thanotos: Death drive: to destroy, compete, hurt, hate Psychosexual development: Changing source of pleasure Fixation: Getting “stuck” in one of these stages affects personality (e.g., anal-retentive, oral fixation) Phallic anxiety • Oedipus Complex • young boys lust after mother • Fear father (castration) • Become like father • Electra Complex • Little girls want a penis • Blame mother for lack of one • Also fear mother • Become like mother Problems: Not testable, not systematic, based on a handful of cases. No evidence. Sexist

Psych. Perspectives: Behaviourism Classical conditioning observable. Premise: all behaviours are learned. Pairing a natural impulse with a non-natural stimulus. Operant conditioning: Behaviour-response-outcome-learning. Reward/Punishment. Have been used in “gay conversion therapy”. Psych. Perspectives: Social Learning Social learning We learn vicariously. Challenge to behaviorism. Can’t be explained by simple reward / punishment. Suggests empathy / theory of mind needed. Study BOBO DOLL study. Results: Kids learned how to aggress through modeling. Regardless of real, filmed, or animated! • Learned that aggression is desirable / good • We learn norms, laws of our culture this way! Psych. Perspectives: Culture Our culture shapes us such as our - Attitudes - Beliefs - Perceptions - Behavioural Norms. Sex is no different - Media effects - Cultivation: what you see is reality. Learn norms from media. - Social learning: role models and who we emulate Psych. Perspectives: Personality Personality: stable individual differences across situations. This can be measured based on them. Big 5 - Openness: sensation seeking, low sex anxiety - Conscientiousness: Reliable, planner, engage in less risky sexual behaviours - Extraversion: Energized around people. More sexual partners - Agreeableness: Caring, friendly. - Neuroticism: Insecurity, risky unprotected sex, anxiety.

• These factors can all interact, alter one another Lecture 3: Sexology Research Review Question Thomas finds it incredibly arousing to be dominant (consensually!) during sex with his partner. How could you explain this behaviour in terms of biological, psychological, and social explanations? The idea of social norms, expectations. It was modeled. Biologically may be high level of they. Plan for Lecture 3: • History of Sexology • Qualitative Designs • Quantitative Designs • Ethics & Being an Informed Reader History of Sexology – Pre-1900s • Prior to 1850s: No one studied sex • At least not scientifically, as its own field • Like psychology, study of sex took a backseat to natural sciences • Result: Knowledge about sex at this time-period was relied through: • Philosophy • Biology • Religion Richard von Krafft-Ebing, a physician • Far from objective… interested in pathological sexuality • Published books about • Medicalized deviance • “ Perversions”, reflected cultural norms of the time • “Normal” vs. “Pathological” This book had the emphasis was “different” than normal sex. • Archaic by today’s standards Havelock Ellis: Sought an objective approach to sex research Collect data, don’t moralize • Believed women had sex drives, just like men • Saw deviations in sexuality as harmless, should be accepted

Magnus Hirschfeld: Founder of first sex research institute • Large-scale data collection, sex journal, interest in homosexuality and transgender people • Also marriage and contraception counseling • Work destroyed by the Nazis in 1933 History of Sexology - Freud 20 th Century: Freud • Physician as well who created psychoanalysis • Further opened dialogue about sex, got it into mainstream • Even if his approach was far from scientific - e.g., case studies A good start, but… • Public was still unwilling to be participants in sex studies • Difficulties securing funding for research • Few places willing to publish research But there was growing scientific interest in the topic History of Sexology - Kinsey 1940s / 1950s – Kinsey: A zoologist (studied gall wasps) • College prof surprised by inaccuracies in textbooks • Led to large-scale study of sex for thousands of Americans and the Kinsey Institute • Published 2 books: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male/Female History of Sexology – M&J Masters & Johnson – Husband & Wife team Added additional credibility to the scientific study of sex • Not just surveys, but in-lab studies with technology • Published books at the right time / place: Sexual revolution in the 60s • Penile strain gauge • Measure male sexual arousal • Small circular tube placed around base of the penis • Wires connect tube to recording device • Assesses changes in penile circumference (as blood flows into penis it increases in size) • Vaginal photoplethysmograph • Measure female sexual arousal • Small acrylic rod placed into vagina, wires connect to recording device • Measures arousal via changes in vaginal blood volume via reflected light • Arousal: vaginal walls fill with blood, reduces reflected light

Qualitative Studies Why do qualitative studies?  Great for initial foray into a topic  Good at generating future research questions  Excellent at looking at rare cases  When focus on participant experience is required Quantitative Studies Focus on collecting large amounts of numeric data  Strength: Allows averaging / comparing of results between participants  Less subjectivity Weakness: Loss of fidelity of data, lack of nuance Operationalization • Problem: How do we measure our variables? • Conceptual: What we want to measure • Operational: What we actually measure • Operationalization: Our attempt to measure a conceptual variable • How could we operationalize “sexually active”? • How could we operationalize “sexual attraction to males?” Choosing a Study Design Numerous study designs Main ones we use:  Correlational - Cross-sectional - Longitudinal  Experimental  Each one has trade-offs Quantitative Studies: Correlational • Question being asked: Are X & Y related to one another? • Correlation: Does Y depend at least partly on X? • Value from -1 to +1 • - 1: Strong negative relation • +1: Strong positive relation • 0: No relation • Examples:

• Strong positive: • Insurance cost & car value • Strong negative: • Mileage & car value • No correlation: • Car colour & car value Correlational study logic: • Measure X & Y in people • e.g., Survey, observation • Are these scores related? • Example: Correlation between testosterone and sex drive • r = 0.5: Hypothesis supported • r = 0: Not supported • r = -0.5: Definitely not supported! X related to Y • But does X cause Y? • Example: Testosterone and sex drive… • Testosterone raises sex drive • Higher sex drive raises testosterone • Self-esteem raises both • Problem: Correlational studies can’t say which one it is! • Designed to test if correlation exists, not causal direction • One solution: Longitudinal studies • Measure variables in same people repeatedly over time Quantitative Studies: Longitudinal Example: Measure testosterone and sex drive over time  Check “cross” paths for directionality  Evidence for directionality  But not perfect - Self-esteem could still explain both Hypotheses often involve causal direction ! Correlational studies can’t test causation, only correlation . Need a type of study that can test causation . Quantitative Studies: Experiments Experiments involve 3 things:  Manipulate “causing” variable - Called independent variable (IV)

• Lots of things, including: • Informed consent: Participants in the know and can withdraw • Deception needs debriefing • Confidentiality: Participant’s identity is protected • Minimal harm: No more than day-to-day life Ethics: The Tearoom Trade Study What happens when we don’t do ethical research?  1970s: Humphreys: Anonymous same-sex male encounters in public restrooms  Played “lookout”, covertly followed / tracked men  Later sent RAs to houses to get demographic information Ultimately, study shed light on non-deviance of these acts, destigmatized  But men involved were not aware they were being studied A lot could have gone wrong:  What if Humphrey forced to disclose names for arrest Men could have been “found out” by partners when approached at home Ethics: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study Study of 400 low-income Black men from Tuskeegee, Alabama • All had syphilis, but unaware of it • Offered free medical treatment and meals • But couldn’t go to doctors for it or get other treatment • Tracked progression of syphilis – a treatable condition Result: Many died or were harmed after 40 years of having syphilis • Which could have been treated Participants were not given full information • They probably wouldn’t have chosen to participate! Harm was done to them by being in the study Ethics: Today Researchers want to conduct ethical research • Perhaps ethics boards are a bit overzealous today • Minimal risk studies still highly scrutinized • Sometimes unreasonable requests • Even for mundane tasks! Evaluating Research There’s a lot of crap out there! • Magazines, news outlets, political pundits • Often agenda-driven • Even when not, often ignorant of proper scientific practices

• Sex is exciting, but also scandalous, so sometimes it’s hard to study • But people want to know! Evaluating Research: Being Critical What you can do: • Seek citations and read methods Assess author conclusions: Are they speaking beyond their data? • What’s the purpose of the outlet referencing the study? Correlation =/= causation Are the conclusions extreme? • Is the sample representative? • Not just “is it over a certain size”, but how good is it? • Don’t seek “perfect” studies • There are no perfect studies • Don’t rely on only one study • Look for converging evidence, meta-analyses of many studies If all studies are imperfect, how can we ever know anything ? Answer: Converging evidence • All studies are flawed • But not all in the same way! • Complementary strengths 50 different studies reach same conclusion… pretty confident Lecture 4 – Human Sexual Anatomy Review Question: Thomas hypothesizes that repeated exposure to shoes in a sexual context contributes to the development of foot fetishes. In a sentence each, describe how he could study this idea cross- sectionally, longitudinally, experimentally, and qualitatively. EXAM Measuring a bunch of different variables across time (cross-sectional). Interviewing about fetish at one point and in the future ask again and see the results (longitudinally). Random assignment to expose people with shoes to sex and then study the results (experimentally). Ask open ended questions about the shoe fetish. Plan for Today: • The Penis: History & Culture • Male Anatomy • The Vulva and Breasts: History & Culture • Female Anatomy

• They’re costly at best, and potentially dangerous at worst • Study: Asked females about what contributed to sexual satisfaction • Only 17-34% said a longer penis = More orgasms • Females more likely to orgasm via clitoris anyway • Size mattered most for people for whom PIV was the most important sexual act • Related: Testicle size • Like penis, assumed to be related to more masculinity • Partly because testicles produce testosterone • Kernel of truth: In sheep, larger testicles meant… • More testosterone • More aggression • More mate-seeking behaviour • Keep in mind… • People are not sheep • More is not always better: • More aggression • Less nurturing behaviour • In general, decreasing returns after a certain amount • If you’re getting an average amount, you’re fine • Nevertheless… • Self-injecting saline into scrotum to increase size • Purely cosmetic, and dangerous if done wrong • Cross-cultural concern: • Dhat: Anxiety about semen loss • Koro: Fear of shrinking penis Male Anatomy External anatomy • Root: Internal portion • Anchors penis to pubic bone • Shaft: External, main body • Loose, pendulous when flaccid • Hair at the base • Glans: The “Head” • Sits atop shaft • Most sensitive part of penis • Contains most nerve endings • Corona: the “crown” of the glans • Possible “semen displacement device” against competitors • Alternative: Maximize surface area for hormone absorption • Prepuce: Foreskin

• Envelops corona and glans, retractable sheath • Scrotum: A sack under the penis • Houses testicles • Hangs loosely, but varies based on external temperature • Important for sperm viability (thermoregulates) • Left testicle hangs lower, possible optimal heat exchange Internal anatomy • Shaft: 3 long cylinders that fill - 2 on top: Corpora cavernosa - 1 beneath: Corpus spongiosum - No muscles involved! • Urethra: Duct for carrying urine away from bladder • Seminal vesicles: 2 glands behind bladder to produce most semen • Sugar, alkaline, sustain sperm • Prostate gland: Also releases semen, male “G- spot” - orgasm • Cowper’s gland: Releases pre-ejaculate • During ejaculation: Urethra contracts, muscles at base of penis propel ejaculate out of penis • Ejaculate / Semen: A mixture of fluids and sperm, 2 teaspoons o Includes hundreds of millions of sperm cells o Only need a few hundred for fertilization  Needed because vagina is a hostile place for sperm  Testes: Male gonads – Suspended by spermatic cord o Sperm produced in seminiferous tubules o Testosterone produced in the interstitial cells between  Pain when hit: Good design (motivated protective response)

• 9% wanted smaller breasts • Males: Only 56% happy with partner’s breast size • Breast augmentation surgery: 250,000+ in US per year • Other insecurities: • Labia asymmetrical, or too large (or even just “visible”) • Concerns about vaginal tightness • Concerns about G-spots and inability to orgasm • Surgery for all of these possible (not always effective) • “Female Circumcision” (FGM) • Removing portions of vulva, clitoris, etc.; 15% of all women worldwide • For virginity or aesthetics • Often in prohibitive cultures that value female virginity • Much more intense than male circumcision, different reasons Female Anatomy • External anatomy • Breasts: Secondary sex characteristic • Sign of maturity, not genitals • Nipple – Where milk is released • Areola – Dark area around nipple, many nerve endings • Fatty tissue and mammary glands comprise breast • Misconceptions: • Larger breasts = more milk • Same number of milk glands • Larger breasts = sensitive • Same number of nerves, so often the opposite • External anatomy • Mons pubis – Fatty tissue covering front of pubic bone • Protects genitals during sex • Vulva: Term for all external female genital structures • Labia, vaginal opening

• Labia majora: “Outer Lips” • Pubic hair, encase most genital structures • Labia minora: “Inner lips” • Hairless folds to protect vaginal / urethral opening • Both labia have many nerves, flush and swell during arousal • Vestibule: Houses openings to urethra and vagina • Meatus: Urethral opening (for urination) • Introitus: Vaginal opening • Vagina often covered by thin membrane (hymen) • But not always • Prepuce: Clitoral hood • Functionally equivalent to male foreskin • Clitoris: Akin to the penis, has a glans, shaft, “foreskin” • More than just external part • Erect during arousal • Source of most orgasms • Vestibule: Houses openings to urethra and vagina • Meatus: Urethral opening (for urination) • Introitus: Vaginal opening • Vagina often covered by thin membrane (hymen) • But not always • About the hymen: • Often breaks during non-sexual activity, but also any vigorous activity • Associated with virginity • “Revirginization” surgery is a thing, often based on perceived virtue of virginity • Pelvic floor muscles: Kegal exercises can strengthen these • Helps with incontinence • Vagina: Canal connecting introitus to uterus • Flexible, changes shape during sex • Mucosal – Self-lubricating • Most nerves around introitus, not deep inside • Grafenberg spot (G-spot) • Inside, upward a few inches • Reached with fingers and a “come here” gesture • Often a source of considerable pleasure • Subject of considerable debate • Is it a distinct structure or just part of the clitoris • Cervix: Separates vagina and uterus • Mucus can facilitate or block sperm entry as needed • For some, a source of pleasure • Possible source of the “big penis” = Pleasure myth • Uterus: Muscular, cavernous organ