Pre-Writing Scaffold Stankevicius

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PRE-WRITING SCAFFOLD STANKEVICIUS 1 Pre-Writing Scaffold Assignment Elizabeth Stankevicius School of Education, Liberty University Author Note Elizabeth Stankevicius I have no known conflict of interest to disclose. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Elizabeth Stankevicius. Email: estankevicius@liberty.edu

PRE-WRITING SCAFFOLD STANKEVICIUS 2 B.F. Skinner Annotated Journal Articles on B.F. Skinner McLaughlin, S. F. (2010). Verbal behavior by B.F. Skinner: Contributions to analyzing early language learning. The Journal of Speech and Language Pathology, Applied Behavior Analysis. , 5 (2), 114–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100272 Mclaughlin (2010) begins by discussing the book Verbal Behavior that B.F. Skinner released in 1957. He also does an overview of Chomsky’s critique of Skinner’s work and the flaws in the critique. The author then delves deeper into the verbal behavior theory and gives examples of what some of the different terms and ideas would look like. For example the author discusses the internal and external stimuli, consequences, and reinforcers. Units of verbal operants are explained. “With children, the nature of the verbal operant will evolve over time. In addition, the size of the functional verbal operant will expand over time. As the child becomes capable of coordinating longer motor sequences in his or her speech, his or her utterances can orchestrate more relations and address social agendas more deftly as they expand, for example, from mere grunts and gestures to “Cookie” to “More cookie” to “Two big cookies” all the way to “I can tell from how they smell that you make the best chocolate chip cookies!”” (McLaughlin, 2010). It is important to note that this article was written for a journal for speech and language pathologists to explain and show how verbal behavior can be used to help children acquire language. It further goes into the operants mand, tact, intraverbal, and autoclitics. The author also shows how each operant correlates with early language development. “It is now time for speech-language pathologists to see the inconsistency of holding up the LAD or other innate mechanisms as the basis for language learning

PRE-WRITING SCAFFOLD STANKEVICIUS 3 while applying behavioral principles in actually changing language behaviors. That most clinicians manipulate the environmental variables, including their own models, contexts, stimuli, and reinforcement in their everyday clinical practice is not only vindicating of Skinner’s analysis, but compelling of clinicians to understand and adopt that analysis” (McLaughlin, 2010). Gilbert, M. B., & Gilbert, T. F. (1991/09//). What Skinner Gave Us. Training, 28 (9), 42. https://go.openathens.net/redirector/liberty.edu?url=https://www.proquest.com/trade- journals/what-skinner-gave-us/docview/203387002/se-2 Gilbert & Gilbert (1991) wrote this article the year after B.F. Skinner had passed away to talk about the contributions that he gave to the world. They begin by stating the things that people may have known him for such as trying to control people’s behaviors by applying what he learned about rats in a laboratory. The authors state that if you really look at his accomplishments you could call him the father of scientific psychology and to technology of education and training. Skinner’s work taught how to train animals but then to use those principles to be able to educate and train human beings. “Skinner applied one method that was absolutely necessary for teaching animals to perform complex sequences of behavior. He called it ‘chaining,’ because it links successive steps in a behavioral sequence to the final outcome” (Gilbert & Gilbert, 1991). The authors go more in-depth to discuss how Skinner used other principles such as shaping and schedules of reinforcement to train pigeons and rats. How some of these principles were used and analyzed in a business setting were discussed. Then the authors go on to look at the accomplishments that have occurred from people who followed Skinner’s teachings and theories and expanded on them. “Skinner’s followers in behavior modification have

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PRE-WRITING SCAFFOLD STANKEVICIUS 4 taught us ways to approach a variety of behavioral problems, from toilet training of toddlers to controlling the behavior of the mentally ill. Few psychologists have ever had this kind of influence” (Gilbert & Gilbert, 1991). Skinner’s goal was to discover principle’s that would lead to the best way to control behavior. Sparzo, F. J. (1992///Spring). B. F. Skinner's Contributions to Education: A Retrospective Appreciation. Contemporary Education, 63 (3), 225. https://go.openathens.net/redirector/liberty.edu?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly- journals/b-f-skinners-contributions-education/docview/1291784153/se-2 Sparzo (1992) stated that this article was not intended to defend Skinner from his critics and referenced other literature that does that already but to give a highlight of his work and the educational implications it had. As he delves into Skinner’s background, the author does discuss the different misrepresentations and misunderstandings there have been regarding Skinner’s work. The importance of strengthening operants by use of reinforcements is which is considered a consequence was a part of his work to make a difference in education. The example of students not completing work but still being able to access highly motivating reinforcers and the students who continue to try to escape aversive tasks. Which leads us to the A-B-C analysis. This is where we look at an antecedent, the behavior that occurs, and then the consequence that immediately follows the behavior. With this we are able to analyze how particular teaching is affecting students. Looking at the individual as opposed to the group to see what works best for each student. Programmed instruction was another one of Skinner’s work to impact education in some way. “Effective instruction, of course, requires much more than immediate feedback and individual assignments” (Sparzo, 1992). Practical applications

PRE-WRITING SCAFFOLD STANKEVICIUS 5 of Skinner’s work has been used and very beneficial in different areas including education. His writing’s inspired the developer of the Keller plan for mastery learning and direct instruction. Unfortunately, there have been man weak attempts to implement what Skinner recommends in education which has been the cause of many problems. Synthesis of Articles on B.F. Skinner The authors in each article discussed talk about how B.F. Skinner either directly made a impact or through his teachings and philosophy have allowed others to make an impact. Using his theory of verbal behavior has made it possible to look at each part of language in a way and be able to work on teaching those individual operants with students and assist with their language acquisition. Teaching harder skills by using the chaining method that was discussed by Gilbert & Gilbert (1991). There were critiques of Skinner’s work but every article had discussed why they were just misrepresentations or misunderstandings and why. What we were taught by Skinner about how to analyze behavior and to see what keeps the behavior happening as explained by Sparzo (1992) when he discussed A-B-C analysis. Although mainly discussed in the realm of education and individuals with disabilities, Gilbert & Gilbert (1991) gave an example in their writing on how Skinner’s theories were used in a business environment. Through my readings and personal experience in behavior analysis it is apparent that Skinner’s work continues to have positive effects for people. Preliminary Thesis Statement: B.F. Skinner Skinner’s philosophy about behavior and education has helped students with disabilities make gains in different area such as academics, language acquisition, and with adaptive behaviors. No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)

PRE-WRITING SCAFFOLD STANKEVICIUS 6 Annotated Journal Articles on No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) Eckes, S., & Swando, J. (2009). Special Education Subgroups Under NCLB: Issues to Consider. Teachers College Record / , 111 (11). The No child left behind act (NCLB) was passed in 2002. Eckes & Swando (2009) reviewed larger databases from three different states to see the effect that NCLB had on four different subgroups. The specific subgroups look at were race/ethnicity, students with disabilities, limited English proficiency, and socioeconomic status. The purpose of NCLB was for this law to make sure that all students, with minor exceptions, were making substantial adequate progress academically yearly. The end goal was for students to be at 100% proficiency by the 2013-2014 academic year. The article gives an explanation on what the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) is, what it entails, and the specifics of what an Individual Education Plan (IEP) is. “Over six million students in the United States currently receive services under IDEA (Olson, 2004), and making AYP has been particularly challenging for the special education subgroups” (Eckes & Swando 2009). The difficulty with the student’s with disabilities subgroup being able to make adequate yearly progress (AYP) is due ot the fact that they are expected to make the same proficiency levels as their general education peers. How can someone with an IEP that is on a different track academically be expected to be on the same proficiency level as their peer? IDEA requires a two-part test to make sure that students with disabilities are receiving a free and appropriate public education (FAPE). “This two-part test could be violated if students with disabilities are expected to take gradelevel tests, as required under NCLB, if their IEP does not require such tests” (Eckes & Swando 2009).

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PRE-WRITING SCAFFOLD STANKEVICIUS 7 Vannest, K. J., Mahadevan, L., Mason, B. A., & Temple-Harvey, K. (2009///May/Jun). Educator and Administrator Perceptions of the Impact of No Child Left Behind on Special Populations: RASE. Remedial and Special Education, 30 (3), 148-159. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932508315378 In this study, Vannest et. al. (2009) conducted a study to assess the effect of NCLB on students in special education. They collected the information by surveying staff, administration, and educators who serve students in special education settings. The authors explain the theoretical framework of the reform that is NCLB that was to improve public education. There are four pillars in NCLB, parents, accountability, methods, and flexibility. Results from a Harvard study were reviewed. Here, general education teachers across two school districts were surveyed to see if teachers in schools that were not meeting AYP would report having different needs than teachers in schools that were making adequate progress. The study showed that both sets of teachers reported that the schools did not have adequate resources as well as the need for smaller class size, increased time for collaboration, and a focus on rewards. Also noted in that study was the similarity in reports of a decrease in morale and not an improvement in practices. The authors then reviewed the methods, instrumentation, and procedure of their study. The study showed favorable survey results in the area of having higher academic standards and accountability for students with disabilities (54.8% and 55.2%). The section that had the highest favorable survey results across the board were those of teacher and paraprofessional qualifications. The authors then describe the limitations of the study as well as the implications for research and practice.

PRE-WRITING SCAFFOLD STANKEVICIUS 8 Nguyen, T. D., Redding, C., Gilmour, A. F., & Bettini, E. (2024). No Child Left Behind and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act: Examining Special Educators’ Outcomes. Remedial and Special Education, 45(3), 139-151. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325231193332Enter your sixth summary and analysis here. Nguyen et. al. (2024) focused their study on the skilled special education teacher (SET) aspect of the NCLB act. One of the pillars of NCLB was to change qualifications needed by educators, this study focuses on special education teachers. They wanted to see if and how IDEA and NCLB had any effect on the trends in the SET workforce. “Three distinct policy components of NCLB and IDEA may have changed the qualifications, service delivery model, and job attitudes of SETs: (a) new requirements regarding SETs’ qualifications; (b) how standards-based reform may have affected the placement of students with disabilities, and (c) the unique accountability pressures faced by SETs” (Nguyen et. al., 2024). Before NCLB and IDEA made the change to qualification for SETs there was already a shortage which forced administrators to hire uncertified SETs. “Thus, NCLB may have resulted in a larger decrease in uncertified SETs compared with other teachers because so many schools previously relied on uncertified SETs to fill positions” (Nguyen et. al. 2024). It was noted that these requirements may have inadvertently reduced the amount of teachers with a degree in special education. There were two research questions that Nguyen et. al (2024) asked in this article. To what extent did NCLB and the reauthorization od IDEA influence SETs certification, education, service delivery model, and job attitudes and to what extent did the outcomes of those federal policies differ by school characteristics (i.e., poverty status; school

PRE-WRITING SCAFFOLD STANKEVICIUS 9 level)? The authors shared a table with the percentages of difference either for the positive or the negative for each query. Synthesis of Articles on NCLB NCLB seemed to have good intentions towards improving education but as most laws it did not take everything into consideration. As discussed by Eckes and Swando (2009), there were parts of NCLB that directly clashed with what IDEA had in place for students with disabilities. How can you ensure an individualized education plan for a student and then expect them to make the same gains as his general education counterpart? Nguyen et. al. (2024) brought up points in their study how NCLB made it more difficult to find qualified special education teachers. When there has been a teacher shortage statewide, making it harder to meet criteria to teach students does not help get more teachers in. Now I am in favor in having qualified teachers in the classroom, the law just seemed to give extra credentials and certifications that teachers needed to get to keep doing their job. Nothing, however, was offered to teachers in regards to compensation or time off to be able to accomplish this. It was no wonder one of the studies discussed how it was reported that morale was lower. Public education is in need of assistance bur setting unrealistic expectations for students across the board with no extra resources and help given is not the way to fix it. Preliminary Thesis Statement: NCLB The NCLB Act had no significant positive impact on special education. Some of the aspects of NCLB were contrary to the provisions that were put in place for students with disabilities through IDEA.

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PRE-WRITING SCAFFOLD STANKEVICIUS 10 References Smith, S. J. (2020). Windows into the history and philosophy of education Kendall Hunt Publishing Company.

Pre-Writing Scaffold Stankevicius

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