PHI Quizzes
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School
Arizona State University *
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Course
101
Subject
Philosophy
Date
Dec 6, 2023
Type
Pages
54
Uploaded by PresidentAnteater1002
PHI Quizzes
2A
1-If you
believe
that organic foods
are
better for you, but in fact organic foods are
not
better for you, then
which of the following is true?
●
You
don’t
know that organic foods are better for you, since they aren’t.
2-"Yeah, I know Bob, we have a class together."
The sense of "know" in this sentence is...
●
knowledge by acquaintance
3-According to the video and the textbook, even if you have a justified true belief that something is the
case, you might not know that it is the case.
●
True
4-"I know how to ride a bike".
The sense of "know" in this sentence is called...
●
procedural knowledge
5-In epistemology, "justification" has to do with . . .
●
the reasons someone believes what they do
6-If you believe that you will get the job you applied for, and it is true that you will in fact get the job you
applied for, does that mean you
know
that you will get the job you applied for?
●
No, because you might not have any justification for your belief.
7-What you claim to know that
p
, what it is it that you are claiming to know? (That is, what does
p
stand
for?)
●
a proposition
8-A stopped watch is right twice a day. Suppose your watch is stopped. Suppose you look at the watch,
assuming it is not stopped, and the watch says that it is 3pm. On this basis, you believe it is 3pm. In fact,
it is 3pm. Looking at a watch is usually good evidence for the truth of a belief. This is an example of . . .
●
a justified true belief that is not knowledge
9-In Section 2.1 of the textbook, Part B, it discusses the concept of justification. It says, "In order for a
belief to be knowledge, it's traditionally held that a person must have ________ ________ ___ _____ ___
___ _______."
●
sufficient evidence in favor of that belief
10-Margot has a lot of evidence that the earth is round, because in fact the earth is round and it is hard to
go through life in our age without getting information through perception or testimony of the roundness of
the earth. Margot has more evidence that the earth is round than most other things she would claim to
know. But Margot believes the earth is flat. She believes this because she reads a blog claiming that the
earth is flat, written as a parody by college comedy troupe, and mistakes it for something real.
Why doesn't Margot
know
that the earth is round?
●
she doesn't believe it
11-Bob is playing poker with Larry. Bob makes a guess that his hand is better than Larry's hand, and he
bets everything. Bob gets lucky, and he wins. Why can't Bob claim that he "knew" he had a better hand
than Larry?
●
his belief wasn't justified
12-What does it mean for a belief to be “justified”?
●
The belief is held for good reasons, which are themselves justified.
13-"I know that Columbus sailed the ocean in 1492".
The sense of "know" in this sentence is . . .
●
propositional knowledge
14-Which of the following would be evidence that the notion of
fairness
is not a priori?
●
if different societies had entirely incompatible concepts of fairness
15-Which of the following could a rationalist claim we know
a priori
?
●
if someone were to lose a finger, then they would lose a body part
16-Many college students say that humans invented or created mathematics. If this were so, which of the
following would be evidence that mathematics is not a priori?
●
If different groups of people invented incompatible systems of mathematics
●
This a guess
17-Beliefs are justified by . . .
●
Reasons
18-Even if you don't know something, you might still believe it. Four of the following are good reasons
why you might believe something you don't know. One is NOT a good reason to believe something you
don't know. Which one is NOT a good reason to believe something you don't know?
●
you're just too lazy to think about it right now
19-Although some ancient philosophers and mathematicians were able to deduce that the earth was
round, and in fact Eratosthenes of Cyrene calculated the circumference of the earth, the average person
in the ancient world believed the earth was flat. This is because the average person in the ancient world
had a lot of evidence that the earth was flat, and little evidence that the earth was round. Nobody could
criticize a person in that era for believing the earth was flat.
Which of the following is true?
●
people back then did not know that the earth was flat, because it wasn't
2B
1-The alternative option to foundationalism given in the textbook is called "coherentism", which is the view
that our chain of reasoning is ultimately . . .
●
circular
2-What makes someone a rationalist is that they believe that...
●
we know some things that could be justified without sensory experience
3-What is a
priori
knowledge?
●
knowledge which is justified, but not justified by sensory experience.
4-In Plato’s
Meno
, Socrates argues that the boy has
a priori
knowledge, because:
●
Even though he was never taught geometry, he was able to correctly answer geometry problems
simply by thinking through them.
5-A _______________ holds that every belief must be justified by some more certain belief, which in turn
must be justified by an even more certain belief, so there must be some absolutely certain beliefs which
justify all of the others.
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●
foundationalist
6-"Instead of being justified by perception, memory, or testimony,
a priori
knowledge is justified by a kind
of pure reasoning or "rational insight". We know certain things
a priori
simply by ________ _____
________ _______ about the world, and this knowledge is justified in a way that it would be very hard for
any empirical evidence to convince us that it is false."
●
reflecting and reasoning logically
7-(1) If I have knowledge, then every belief must be justified by some reason more certain than it.
(2) ________________________
(C) If I have knowledge, then every belief must be justified by some belief which is more certain, which is
justified by some belief which is yet more certain, and which is justified by some . . .
●
every reason is a belief
8-In the textbook, why is it suggested that your everyday experience or perception is probably not your
reason (justification) for believing that 2+2=4?
●
in everyday experience, 2 of something and 2 of something doesn't always make 4 of something
9-According to section 2.1 of the textbook, at the end of Part C, discussing the concept of the
a priori
,
"while most contemporary philosophers whould reject Plato's story of the soul's pre-exisxtence in the
realm of the forms, many would still accept that we have some
a priori
justified knowledge of some things
such as ________________________________, since this knowledge can't be empirical."
●
mathematics, metaphysics, and morality
10-Which of the following are considered
empirical
evidence that a proposition
p
is true? SELECT ALL
THAT APPLY.
●
remembering that p is true
●
testimony from someone else that p is true
●
perceiving that p is true
11-a priori knowledge is said to be justified by a kind of . . .
●
pure reasoning or rational insight
12-Which of the following would be evidence that the notion of
fairness
is not a priori?
●
if different societies had entirely incompatible concepts of fairness
13-Which of the following could a rationalist claim we know
a priori
?
●
if someone were to lose a finger, then they would lose a body part
14-Many college students say that humans invented or created mathematics. If this were so, which of the
following would be evidence that mathematics is not a priori?
- if different groups of people invented incompatible systems of mathematics
2c-
1-What is the one thing that Descartes can’t doubt?
●
That he is doubting.
2-"(3) I couldn't get the idea of infinite perfection at the highest degree of reality from anything that wasnt
______ ______ ___ ___ ________ ________ ___ ________."
-infinite perfection at the highest degree of reality
3-In Section 2.1 of the reading, Part I, Descartes's foundationalism as presented in the Fourth and Sixth
Meditations is described. In his view, one must have the more basic beliefs in order to
justify
the less
basic beliefs. Order the following beliefs from
more basic
or foundational to
less basic
or foundational,
according to Descartes.
●
I’m thinking
●
I exist
●
I have concepts
●
the natures of things
●
the concept of infinite perfection
●
God necessarily exists
●
God is all powerful, all knowing, and all good
●
God would not allow me to be deceived by no fault of my own
●
I can trust my senses
●
There is a real world outside of my mind
●
Science
4-Descartes questions whether the external world we think is ‘real’ truly is real, because . . .
●
he wants to reveal the foundations our knowledge of the external world depends upon.
5-In Section 2.1 of the textbook, Part H, Descartes's argument from the Fifth of his
Meditations
is
presented. Why, according to this argument, is it
not
possible for an infinitely perfect being to
not
exist?
●
Because then the being wouldn't be infinitely perfect, but that is a contradiction
6-In the Third Meditation, why does Descartes think that an infinite God must exist?
●
Because nothing else can explain how he came to have the idea of an infinite God.
7-Descartes offers three arguments in an attempt to lead himself to doubt everything he thought he knew.
Which one of the following is
not
one of those three arguments?
●
The authorities have lied to him in the past.
8-How does Descartes know that he exists?
●
If he didn’t exist, he couldn’t have the experience of doubting that he existed.
9-In the Fifth meditation, why does Descartes think that the most perfect being conceivable can’t fail to
exist?
●
Because existence is a perfection, so he can’t conceive of the most perfect being without
conceiving of it existing.
10-Descartes notes that, while his senses have deceived him, that in itself doesn’t give us enough reason
to doubt everything our senses tell us, because:
●
they only deceive us concerning things which are small or very far away, and when we suffer from
mental illnesses.
11-How does Descartes use his proof of the existence of God as a foundation for all other knowledge?
●
Because God is all-good, God would not allow Descartes to be deceived about everything in the
external world.
12-Using Descartes's terminology, FOUR of the following are of a "lower degree of reality" than you, and
ONE of the following is at your level of reality. Which one of the following is at YOUR level of reality?
●
your experience of the color blue
13-Descartes claims that he is essentially a thing which thinks. An "Essential" property of something, a
property which is part of its "Essential Nature", is a property that it is __________ that it have
●
logically necessary
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14-Descartes claims I am only justified in believing my senses if we can rule out FOUR of the following
skeptical possibilities. Which ONE of the following is NOT a skeptical possibility that Descartes thinks we
need to rule out in order to trust our senses?
●
My friends and family and everyone else I interact with are all paid actors
15-Descartes notes that, while he has had dreams that seemed just as real at the time as the experience
he is having at the moment, that doesn’t give us enough reason to doubt all of his knowledge, because:
●
even in his dreams, arithmetic and geometry remain the same.
16-If you know that Honda is a car company, then:
-
You must also believe that Honda is a car company.
2d
1- Locke holds that all of the materials of reason and knowledge come from
. . . .
-experiences like sensation and reflection
2-According to Hume, ideas are different from impressions, in that ideas seem less forcible and lively,
whereas impressions like hearing, seeing, and feeling, and hating are more lively.
●
True
3-What makes someone an empiricist is that they hold that all of our knowledge is
●
justified by sensory experience.
4-What does “C causes E” mean, on Hume’s account?
●
C regularly occurs before E occurs.
5-Where does Hume think we get the idea of causation?
●
the idea of causation comes from the constant conjunction of events.
6-According to Section 2.1 in the textbook, Part J, Locke thinks we would have to have innate knowledge
if we were to have a priori knowledge. What is the difference between innate knowledge and a priori
knowledge? Match up each term with the description given in the text.
-innate knowledge: beliefs that are independent of experience.
A priori knowledge: justification that is possibly independent of experience
7-Suppose I drop a heavy ball and it falls to the ground. My dropping the ball causes it to fall to the
ground.
Nonetheless, it is logically possible that, if I were to drop a heavy ball here on earth, the ball might float
into the air. What does this prove to Hume?
●
causation is not a logical necessity or a "relation of ideas"
8-Suppose I drop a heavy ball and it falls to the ground. My dropping the ball causes it to fall to the
ground.
Nonetheless, while we directly observe my letting go and directly observe the ball falling, Hume says that
we don't directly observe the
causation
, or the letting go
causing
the ball to fall. What analogy is offered in
the textbook to explain why Hume says this?
●
the frames in an animated film don't actually cause future frames
9-Most scientific knowledge is said to be
empirical
and arrived at through
induction.
Why doesn't Hume
think we can know anything
empirically
through induction?
●
we can't observe the future
10-Against Descartes's foundationalism, Locke argued that . . .
●
knowledge doesn't require certainty, just probability
2e
1-
Solipsism
is the view that nothing exists but your own experiences. Berkeley is not a solipsist, because
he thinks that _______________.
●
God is having experiences even when you aren't having experiences
2-"So, instead of the
a priori
representing necessary truths about the world, the
a priori
represented
necessary truths about our way of conceiving and thinking of the world, necessary truths of our
psychology. We know that something is true
a priori
for Kant if we cannot possibly conceive of it being
otherwise
●
our way of conceiving and thinking
●
conceive of it being otherwise
3- How are Kant and Berkeley Similar
●
both thought the only world we could know was the world of ideas and experiences
4-Match the following terms, based on Kant's view as described in the textbook
phenomena: world of experience
noumenal: reality in itself
a priori: limits of possible experiences
5-Berkeley's argument is based on the premise that
●
A represents B if and only if A resembles B
6-According to Kant, how do we have knowledge of a
priori
truths?
●
From the limits of our possible experiences.
7-Why can we only know the world of phenomenal experience, according to Kant?
●
because no experience could tell us that our experiences are of the real world.
8-What does Kant mean by “phenomena”?
●
the objects of our conscious experience
9-Kant regards his work as a “Copernican Revolution” in knowledge, because as Copernicus showed that
the sun didn’t revolve around the earth, but instead the earth revolved around the sun, so too . . .
●
Kant showed that it wasn’t the world which caused our mental experiences, but our categories of
mind which caused the world to appear to us as it did.
10-According to Kant, we can know the world of phenomenal experience. What can’t we know?
●
the noumenal world, as it is in itself.
2f
-One view of philosophy after Kant is that philosophy can give us knowledge, but this knowledge is only
about
....
●
Our own conceptual structure
2-In Section 2.1 of the textbook, Part N, a "third option" for rejecting Kant's dilemma is offered. This view
accepts that we have no guarantee that the way we conceive of the world will line up with the way the
world is independently of us, and accepts that our concepts are not fixed in stone, or that our individual
way of thinking about things can be wrong. At the same time:
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"We also can't help but assume that how we think of things ___________ does line up with the way the
world is."
●
Generally
3-One view of philosophy after Kant is that philosophy can't give us knowledge, it can only...
●
describe what it is like to experience life as we do
4-According to principle (NC-->NP) in Section 2.1 of the textbook Part N:
"If we ____________, then that is good evidence that the scenario is logically impossible."
●
Can’t conceive of some scenario
5-According to principle (C-->P) in Section 2.1 of the textbook Part N:
"If we can conceive of some scenario, then that is good evidence that ___________
●
The scenario is logically possible
6-Locke’s epistemology is:
●
Empiricist
7- Descartes’s epistemology is:
●
Rationalist
8- Plato’s epistemology is:
●
Rationalist
9- Hume’s epistemology is:
●
empiricist
10- Kant’s epistemology is:
●
All the above
11-Descartes is a “foundationalist”. What does that mean?
●
He holds that some basic beliefs must ultimately justify all of our other beliefs.
12-According to Descartes, what is he?
●
a thinking thing.
Other shit
1-"Hume's Fork" discussed in our class says that everything we know is either
....
●
empirical or a priori
2-Assuming you know that the sun will rise tomorrow, how do you know it?
●
Induction
3-The debate between Descartes and Locke comes down to a debate over whether it is legitimate to
claim to "know" something if...
●
You know you might be wrong
4-If Berkeley is right, then . . .
●
Everything is exactly as you imagine it to be (nope)
●
5-Why does Berkeley believe that the physical world doesn't exist, and that the world consists only of
immaterial minds or spirits?
●
He thinks we should only believe in what we can perceive
6-According to Kant, the world of our experience is shaped by . . .
●
our a priori categories of thought
7-Some philosophers in the present day accept that there is
a priori
knowledge. Which is true of
how contemporary philosophers think about the
a priori
?
●
a priori knowledge is knowledge based on what we can or can't conceive of
8-Why does our ability to conceive of some scenario or "possible world" give us any evidence at
all that the scenario or possible world is logically possible?
●
only contradictions are logically impossible, and it is hard to conceive of a contradictory scenario
9-Metaphysics is the study of the structure of reality as a whole and the nature of things in it. We are
going to study four topics in metaphysics in this class: the mind-body problem, personal identity, the
existence of God, and free will.
Why is our study of topics in metaphysics going to rely not just on empirical information about actual world
but
also
on hypothetical "thought experiments" about what couldn't happen in some possible world?
●
because understanding the natures of things requires understanding how they could or couldn't
be, not just how they happen to be
●
3a
1-“Consciousness" has to do with subjective experience, whereas a "conscience" is an intuitive moral
faculty, and the two terms are not closely related.
●
True
2-If a robot or computer Artificial Intelligence (AI) is able to mimic people so perfectly that no person can
distinguish it from a person, and if fools people into thinkng it is a person, then it is conscious.
●
False
3-Someone who is lying the floor and is unresponsive, but who is having a dream, is still conscious.
●
True
4-If a fish has pleasure and pains, then a fish is conscious.
●
true
5-If you are dreaming, then you are conscious.
●
True
6-If you are not paying attention to a feeling, like the feeling of your foot on the floor, then it isn't a
conscious feeling.
●
False
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7-John is looking at a computer screen. When we describe John's "consciousness", we are describing
what the experience of the screen is like for him, not the computer screen itself.
●
True
8-If something sends and receives information, and makes use of that information, then it is conscious.
●
False
9-If a person is in a coma, and is unable to communicate with anyone and unable to understand what
people around them say, then the person is not conscious, even if there is something it feels like to be in
their situation.
●
False
10- In order to be conscious, you must be conscious that you are conscious.
●
False
11-How did Descartes argue for mind-body dualism?
●
he could conceive of himself without a body but not without a mind
12- Select all of the following which are correct answers to the question:
which of the following are conscious states, on the philosophical definition of 'consciousness'?
thinking about the number 5
●
pains
●
seeing blue
●
things you see and then immediately forget
●
thinking about one's own thinking
●
experiences of non-rational animals
●
anger
●
how a fish feels when swimming
●
experiences a person has while non-responsive or in a coma
●
hidden desires
●
the smell of swiss cheese
●
dreams
13-The word "soul" can mean ALL of the following. When we use it in Unit 3, what does it mean?
●
Your conscious mind
14-Match the following views with their definitions
●
Dualist: believes there are two fundamental kinds of things, mind and matter
●
Materialist: believes there is one fundamental kind of thing, matter
●
Physicalist: this term means the same thing as "materialist"
●
Idealist: believes there is one fundamental kind of thing, mind
●
Panpsychist: there is one fundamental kind of thing, mind-matter (it's both)
15-Which of the following provides someone with evidence that conscious states are closely related to
brain states?
●
drinking alcohol
3b
1-Churchland argues that the effects of drugs like lithium, alcohol, and cocaine show that consciousness
depends on the brain, contrary to substance dualism.
●
True
2-What does the principle of “Ockham’s Razor” say?
●
If all else is equal, the simpler of two competing hypotheses should be preferred.
3-One argument often given against substance dualism is that, if mind and matter are different
substances, then it is difficult to explain how
●
minds can cause matter to move.
4-The “Problem of Identification” for Substance Dualism asks this: how is it that we know the person we
are talking to has the same mind they had yesterday, if we can’t rely on material evidence?
●
True
5-In the sense we are discussing in class, a materialist believes that ...
●
there is one fundamental kind of thing in the world, the stuff of physics, and if minds exist then
they are material objects.
6-According to Churchland, substance dualists are better able than physicalists to explain how it is that
the mind can interact with the body.
●
False
7-Why is it problematic to define "physical" in this way?
(PHY1) x is physical if and only if x is possibly empirically observable
●
it makes it trivial that everything is physical
8-Why is it problematic to define "physical" in the following way?
(PHY2) x is physical if and only if x plays a role in theories of physics
●
if "physics" means current physics, then physicalism is false; if it means future physics, how can
we know?
9-What is the first premise in the argument from causal dependence, offered in Section 3.1 of the reading,
Part F?
10-Match each argument for physicalism with the reason it offers in favor of physicalism
●
problem of identification:
we can only use physical evidence for determining who is who
●
ockham's razor:
if all else is equal, physicalism is simpler, and should be preferred
●
neural dependence:
psychiatric medications influence experience by influencing the brain
●
Casual dependence:
minds can only cause bodies to do things if minds are physical too
11-The argument from Ockham's razor depends on the assumption that...
●
immaterial minds wouldn't explain anything further that the physical things don't already explain
12-One argument often given against substance dualism is that, if mind and matter are different
substances, then it is difficult to explain how
●
minds can cause matter to move.
3c
1-According to Section 3.1 Part I in the textbook, Supervenience says that: there is no logical possibility of
a difference in conscious state without a difference in brain state.
2-Suppose that after much trial and error we eventually gain the ability to predict exactly what someone is
thinking by scanning his or her brain. Why will the dualist still see this as evidence of dualism, not
physicalism?
●
we had to learn about this empirically, so consciousness is still needed as part of explanation
3-According to Jackson, why is the ‘Mary’ argument a challenge to physicalism?
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●
If physicalism is true, then every fact is a physical fact, so Mary can’t learn a new fact if she
already knows all of the physical facts.
4-In the sense we are discussing in class, a dualist believes that . . .
●
there are two fundamental kinds of thing in the world - mind and matter.
5-Why is the possibility of zombies or inverts an argument against physicalism?
●
if they are possible, then supervenience is false, and physicalism is false
6-What was the new fact that, according to Jackson, Mary the color scientist learned?
-
What is it like for others to see red.
7-In the dualist-materialist debate, one property x supervenes on another y when . . .
●
there can be no difference in x without a difference in y.
8-When we conceive of someone who has a brain and body just like you or I, and responds in the exact
same way, but isn't having conscious experiences, we are conceiving of what philosophers call a . . .
●
Zombie
9-What is a “Zombie” in philosophy?
●
something physically identical to me, but lacking conscious experiences altogether.
10-Chalmers’s “Zombie” argument depends on inferring
●
logical possibility from epistemic possibility
11-Which of the following would make dualism false?
●
if what it is like to be having a conscious experience is identical to what it is to be in a particular
type of brain state.
Other shit
1-Which of the following do panpsychists consider conscious or proto-conscious, but not most dualists or
materialists?
●
Subatomic particles
2-Which of the following is NOT necessarily a conscious state?
●
Tasting sweet
●
Walking
3-dualists and materialists most primarily disagree about the . . .
●
nature of our conscious state
4-Which of the following would be evidence that the notion of
fairness
is not a priori?
●
if different societies had entirely incompatible concepts of fairness
5-Many college students say that humans invented or created mathematics. If this were so, which of the
following would be evidence that mathematics is not a priori?
●
If different groups of people invented incompatible systems of mathematics
6-Which of the following could a rationalist claim we know
a priori
?
●
if someone were to lose a finger, then they would lose a body part
7-Some people object to Chalmers that they can't conceive of Zombies who act just like us, because
without consciousness the Zombie would lack free will, and thus lack the ability to take action. This
objection
presupposes
dualism. Why doesn't Chalmers need to bother to address it when he is arguing
against physicalism?
●
Physicalists have to believe that physical duplicates of us would act just like us, so he's starting
from what his opponents already believe
8-Even if the Zombie and Mary arguments established that a kind of dualism was true, why wouldn't they
establish substance dualism is true?
●
they only show that the mental and physical are distinct, not that they are independent
9-Some people say that the "Mary" argument is question-begging, because we specify from the beginning
that "what it is like to see red" is not one of the physical facts she learns in the colorless room. Why does
Jackson assume that the experience of redness is not a physical fact?
●
physical facts are supposed to be quantitative and measurable, so there would be some way to
communicate them to her without color
10-How might a dualist reject the physicalists premise in the argument from casual dependence that (1) if
the mind and body are wholly distinct, then they are wholly independent
●
Something can be dependent on something else, but still distinct from it
11-How might a dualist resist the physicalist's argument from Ockham's Razor?
●
by arguing that dualism explains something that physicalism doesn't
●
3D
1-Serving as the Head of State is part of what it is to be the President. In the sense in which being the
head of state partly explains what it is to be the President, being Head of State is a _________ of being
the President.
●
Formal cause
2-A sod house is a house made out of dirt. In the sense in which the dirt explains why the sod house is
there, the dirt is a _________ of the sod house.
●
Material cause
3-A branch is defined as a division of the stem of a tree. In the sense in which being a part of a tree
explains why a branch is what it is, the tree is a ______ of the branch.
●
Formal cause
4-Automobiles are constructed out of metal and fiberglass. In the sense in which the metal and fiberglass
explain what the automobile consists in, the metal and fiberglass are a __________ of the automobile.
●
Material cause
5-My belief that it is raining is what makes me take an umbrella outside with me. In the sense in which my
belief explains why I take the umbrella outside, my belief is a ________ of my taking the umbrella outside.
●
Efficient cause
6-when someone has a purpose or goal in mind, what kind of cause is the purpose or goal?
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●
Final cause
7-What do Aristotle’s four causes have in common?
●
They all give an answer to the question “why”
8-Using Aristotle's terminology, the causal dependence argument for physicalism is an argument which
raises questions about how mental events can be the _______________ of physical events
●
Efficient causes
9-If the debate between dualists and physicalists is a debate about the essential nature of the mind, then,
to use Aristotle's terminology, it's a debate about the . . .
●
Formal cause of the mind
10-When someone argues that the mind depends on the brain for its existence at every moment in mind,
they are arguing that the brain is the __________ of the mind.
●
Material cause
11-Flash floods are often caused by melting snow upstream. In the sense in which the melting show
explains why the flash floods occur, the melting snow is a ________ of the flash floods.
●
Efficient cause
12-If the debate between dualists and physicalists is a debate about the essential nature of the mind,
then, to use Aristotle's terminology, it's a debate about the . . .
●
Formal cause of the mind
3E
1-What does an eliminativist believe about the mind?
●
There are no facts about consciousness, and our concept of it is mistaken.
2-What does a substance dualist believe about consciousness?
●
Consciousness does not supervene on the physical, and is independent from it.
3-What does a reductive physicalist believe about the mind?
●
Consciousness is identical to something physical, and fully explained by it.
4-What does an emergentist dualist believe about the mind?
●
Consciousness supervenes on the physical, but its nature isn't physical
5-What does a non-reductive physicalist believe about the mind?
●
Consciousness supervenes on the physical, but our concept of it isn't physical.
6-Emergence is often thought to occur when ___________ fails.
●
Reduction
7-_________________ concerns features of the world that are not reducible to arrangements of
fundamental entities.
●
ontological emergence
8-brain in the sense of
[ Select ] and
[ Select ] causation, but not in the sense of [ Select ] causation.
●
Material, efficient, formal
9-________________ occurs when it is not possible to predict in advance an emergent phenomenon.
●
epistemological emergence
10-Which TWO of the following were given as examples in the video by Paul Humphreys as cases where
ontological emergence occurs, and generative atomism fails?
●
Covalent bonding, entanglement
3F
1-According to Goff, since we know that our brains are conscious . . .
●
we should accept the rest of the material world is conscious also
2-Philip Goff argues that the only thing we know about the intrinsic nature of matter is that at least some
of it ...
●
involves experience
3-What does a panpsychist believe about the mind?
●
Consciousness and the physical are two aspects of one underlying substance.
4-Every view in the philosophy of mind we have studied denies a bit of common sense. Thinking slowly
and critically, match each view with the "bit of common sense" that it must deny.
●
panpsychism: rocks are not conscious
●
eliminativism: you and I are conscious
●
emergent dualism: a whole is just a sum of its parts
●
substance dualism: telekinesis is not part of everyday life
●
reductive physicalism: consciousness is more than just the motion of atoms
5-According to Goff, what can't physical investigation tell us about matter?
●
its intrinsic nature
6-Someone who believes that beliefs, feelings, and perceptions are identical with distinctive types of
event in the brain, is a(n)
●
reductive physicalist
7-Someone who believes that everything has a degree of consciousness, and that conscious minds are
made out of conscious parts, is a(n)
●
panpsychist
8-Someone who believes that our concepts about consciousness are different from our physical
concepts, but that they refer to the same particular physical events, is a(n)
●
non-reductive physicalist
9-Someone who believes that talk about conscious beliefs, feelings, and perceptions ought to be replaced
by descriptions of brain states is a(n)
●
eliminativist
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10-Someone who believes that consciousness does not depend upon the physical body for its existence,
is a(n)
●
substance dualist
11-Someone who believes that consciousness depends on a physical body for its existence, but has a
nature which is non-physical, is a(n)
●
emergentist dualist
Other shit
1-When I form an intention to brush my teeth, and so I put toothpaste on my toothbrush in preparation, my
intention is what I am putting toothpaste on the toothbrush
for
, and at the same time it is what makes me
put toothpaste on the toothbrush. So, my intention to brush my teeth is BOTH the _____ and the ______
of my putting toothpaste on my toothbrush.
●
final cause and efficient cause
2-Where do the final causes of artifacts like tables and chairs come from?
●
their history
●
their material composition
●
our minds
their structure or form
3-How are Aristotle's four causes relevant to the Mind-Body problem?
●
force us to make clear which 'why' question we are asking
4-According to another emergentist argument, we should not be surprised that consciousness is not
reducible to the brain, because . . .
●
reduction fails in many of the sciences
5-How could an emergentist respond to the argument from causal dependence for physicalism?
●
Holding the mental and physical causes are part of a single causal chain
6-According to one emergentist argument, the only alternative to holding the emergentist's view that
novel
conscious properties arise from complex combinations of basic physical parts, is instead holding that . . .
●
The basic physical parts (atoms) are already conscious
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7-According to Descartes, my essential nature is to be a "thinking thing". Ignore for a moment whether
being a thinking thing means being a physical thing, or being an emergent mental thing, or being an
immaterial mental thing. Your essential nature is also to be a "thinking thing", and however we answer the
question of what that means for me (dualism, physicalism, panpsychism), we're going to answer that
question the same way for you.
So, you and I are going to have the same essential nature. But this opens up what question, that we'll
discuss in the next unit? (Hint: it is okay to look ahead in Canvas)
●
How can you and I be different persons?
8-What does "Epiphenomenalism" mean?
●
mental events never cause physical events
9-Which of the following is also said by many philosophers to "Supervene" on the physical, but not to be
reducible to the physical?
●
morality
10-Birds lay eggs in order to reproduce, to have offspring. In the sense in which having offspring explains
why birds lay eggs, having offspring is a ________ of birds laying eggs.
●
Final cause
●
4A
1-Sam rented a nice fancy apartment in Scottsdale. After he moved out, a wicked tenant moved in, who
tore up the carpet and punched holes in the walls. After the wicked tenant moved out, Sam’s brother Tom
moved in to the apartment. Tom called up Sam and said, “I live in the exact
same
apartment as you did,
but it’s definitely changed.” What sense of
same
is he using?
●
Numerical identity
2-The transitivity of identity means that:
●
if a = b, and b = c, then a = c
3-According to the Lecture, the reflexivity of identity means that:
●
For everything a = a
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4-A number of reasons are presented in the video for why question of personal identity matter. Which one
of the following was NOT presented as an issue where it makes a difference how we answer questions of
personal identity?
●
Protecting the environment
5-John bought a new red Toyota Prius from his car dealer. The next day, Jane bought a new red Toyota
Prius from her local car dealer. When John and Jane next met, they said “wow, how random, we bought
the
same
exact car!” What sense of
same
are they using?
●
Qualitative identity
4B
1- According to Locke, neither Dualist nor Materialist accounts of what the conscious substance is can tell
us what personal identity consists in. Why not?
●
neither can rule out two people with one substance, or one person with two substances.
2-Locke gives four counterexamples to the physical substance theory and immaterial substance theory, to
show that neither dualism nor materialism answers questions of personal identity. Match each
counterexample to what it shows.
-it is possible to have one physical substance with two persons: the possibility of multiple personalities inn
the same body
-it is possible to have two physical substances with one person: the possibility of the resurrection of a
person into a new body
-it is possible to have one immaterial substance with two persons: the possibility of the reincarnation of a
soul as a new person centuries later
-it is possible to have two immaterial substance with one person: the possibility of switching out souls
while we are asleep
3-Hume argues that the notion of a ‘self’ is likely a _____________
●
Fiction
4-On Locke’s theory, personal identity is determined by:
●
sameness of memory
5-Section 4.1 in the textbook, part F, describes what Locke means by a "Chain" of memory. This is
supposed to explain why I'm identical to myself at age 3, even if I have no memories from being age 3,
because at each moment, I remembered what happened ___________
●
At the previous moment
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6-According to Locke, “if it is possible for the same man to have distinct incommunicable
consciousnesses at different times, then the same man would at different times make different persons.”
Because of this, human laws:
●
don't punish the mad man for his actions while sober, or the sober man for his actions while mad
7-One Hume’s account, you are a
....
●
bundle of perceptions in continuing succession.
8-On Locke’s view, the concept of a ‘person’ includes that persons are the...
●
objects of reward and punishment.
9-On Hume’s account, identity isn’t something which belongs to the things we perceive, but something
which __________________
●
we attribute to them in our imagination
10-Which of the following examples does Locke use to illustrate a way in which physical identity differs
from personal identity?
●
if the consciousness of a prince entered in to the body of a cobbler.
11-Which of the following examples illustrates a way in which physical identity differs from personal
identity?
●
if my finger were cut off, and my memories went with it
Other questions
1-Suppose you defined yourself in terms of the sequence of locations in space and time at which you are
located, an ordered series <L, t> for each location
L
you are at, at every time
t
at which you are at that
location, ordered by time. Assume for the sake of argument that no two distinct objects can occupy the
same exact region of space and time (this is probably false, but assume it anyway). Even still, why
wouldn't this work as a way of defining yourself?
●
It is neither necessary nor sufficient condition
2-According to the Lecture, the symmetry of identity means that:
●
if a = b, then b = a
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3-Suppose someone defines themselves in terms of "The person who has my body" or "The person who
has my memories." What is the most obvious reason why wouldn't this work?
●
It is circular
4-Why aren't facts about personal identity
empirical
according to Hume?
●
you only observe moments in time, not yourself continuing through time
5-Suppose that I think I remember flying through a war zone and having my plane shot at by anti-aircraft
guns. This is a fake memory, however, implanted in me by an evil scientist. In fact I have never flown
through a war zone. Locke does not want to say that this fake memory makes me identical to someone
who did fly through a war zone. So, this shows that when Locke says I "remember" something, he means
that . . .
●
It actually happened to me
6-Suppose we gradually replaced each cell in your body with a new cell, one by one, so that after a
decade your body was composed of completely different cells. Nonetheless, you would still be you. What
would this show?
●
personal identity does not consist in identity of physical substance
7- which of the following is an example of numerical identity but not qualitative identity?
●
Me at age 5 is the same person as me at the age 85
8-in section 4.1 of the textbook, part d, a distinction is drawn between the accidental self and the essential
self. Which is the sense in which I might have had a different self than I have
●
Accidental
9- the diachronic problem of personal identity is the question of why
●
Me at age 5 is the same person as me at age 85
10- which of the following is an example of two things which are qualitatively identical but numerically
distinct
●
Two copies of the same textbook
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11- the synchronic problem of personal identity is the question of why
●
I am me right now and not you
●
4c
1-Given Parfit’s view that personal identity is a matter of degree, what view does he take of punishment?
●
people deserve much less punishment for crimes they committed many years ago, as opposed to
ones they committed recently.
2-According to Parfit, what’s wrong with our common sense concept of personal identity?
●
we think that identity is a further fact over and above psychological continuity.
3-Daniels gives an example involving a new mode of transportation - with a horrible twist. What’s the
horrible twist?
●
When the new self ‘arrives’ at its destination, the old self is dropped into a pit where a group of
sadists are able to torture it.
4-Daniels argues that . . .
●
remembering an experience presupposes that you are identical to the person who had the
experience, making Locke's view circular.
5-On Derek Parfit’s view, all there is to personal identity is:
●
psychological continuity
6-In Parfit’s “Secular version of the Ressurection”, what happens?
●
when I die, scientists map out all of my cells and produce an exact duplicate of me, which will
wake up three months later believing it is me, and it will be me.
7-Suppose my brain is split between two bodies, L and R, and the missing halves duplicated, and all of
the memories, personality traits, and psychological states are qualitatively identical between the two
bodies. According to Parfit, would I survive as one, neither, or both? Would I be identical to one, neither,
or both?
●
I’d survive in
both
L and R, but I would be identical to
neither
L nor R.
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8-On Derek Parfit’s view, because the question, “will that future person be me – or someone else?” is a
question which no amount of further information can answer, we should:
●
discard our common sense beliefs about personal identity.
9-What example does Daniels give involving a new mode of transportation?
●
People step into a machine which copies their cells onto a tape, disintegrates them, and
reconstitutes their cells in the location they wish to travel to.
10-Daniels gives an example in which his friend Dokes wakes up one morning beliving that he is Henry
Morgan the pirate, and has a knowledge of the intimate details of Morgan’s sordid life that he couldn’t
have learned from a history book. What is example this supposed to show?
●
we need to distinguish clairvoyance from genuine memory.
11-How does Daniels argue against Locke’s memory theory of personal identity?
●
in order to determine whether someone truly remembers a past event, we have to first determine
whether the person is identical.
4D
1-According to Section 4.1 of the textbook, Part J, there are many ways in which to interpret reports by
people who have been biologically dead and then resuscitated of life after death. One way to interpret
them is not as evidence about what being dead is like, but rather as evidence about what _____
________ ___ __________ ___ _____ and what feelings and experiences might accompany it.
●
The process of dying is like
2-According to Section 4.1 of the textbook, Part J, Epicurous held that there was nothing bad about death
at all. One reason is because our attitudes of fear and regret toward death seem irrational and
inconsistent. Why do we regret that we won't live forever, when we don't regret that ______________?
●
we weren't born earlier
3-Assuming God is omnipotent and maximizes the good in the world, and assuming it is logically possible
to survive death, the existence of God guarantees that all moral agents will survive death if:
●
A world in which all moral agents survive death would be morally better than any world in which
some cease to exist.
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4-Even if God is omnipotent and maximizes the good in the world, and a world in which some moral
agents survive death would be morally better than any world in which all cease to exist, this still doesn’t
make clear that anyone will survive death. Why not?
●
It may not be clear that it is logically possible to survive death.
5-Match each Case given in Section 4.1 of the textbook, Part J, with the conditions required for surviving
death if it were the case.
●
Substance Dualism + Bodily Theory: my soul is reunited with the exact same body
●
Substance Dualism + Psychological Theory: my memories and personality remain with my soul
when my brain dies
●
Substance Dualism + Further Fact: my soul remains alive and some further fact does not change
●
Physical-Dependence + Bodily Theory: this same body is brought back to life or reconstituted
●
Physical-Dependence + Psychological Theory: some new body is created and my exact
memories and personality are in it
●
Physical-Dependence + Further Fact: some new body is created and some further fact applies
about it
6-If I am identical to a functioning physical substance, and that functioning physical substance will cease
forever to exist at death, then . . .
●
I will cease forever to exist at death.
7-I can’t conceive of myself existing and then ceasing to exist. However, this doesn’t guarantee that I will
survive death. Why not?
●
Both (a) and (b)
8-If I am essentially a non-physical mental substance, not a functioning physical body, and at death,
nothing about me will change except that my functioning physical body will cease to exist, then when my
body is dead, I will continue to survive.
●
True
9-In Plato’s
Phaedo
, one of Socrates’s arguments involves the premise that Philosophers are wise. What
role does this play in his argument?
●
Philosophers separate the rational soul from the body, just like death does; if there were no life
after death, Philosophers would be foolish to waste life preparing for it.
10-In Plato’s
Phaedo
, one of Socrates’s arguments involves the premise that the soul rules and leads.
What role does this play in his argument?
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●
The divine also rules and leads, so the soul is like the divine; and as the divine is indissoluble, so
too the soul is indissoluble.
11-In Plato’s
Phaedo
, Socrates argues that, after death, the soul will:
●
return to Hades
4E
1-On Daniels’s account, even if it is impossible for anyone to know the facts of the matter about personal
identity, there might still be facts about personal identity.
●
True
2-Parfit discusses the case of a club which meets in England for many years, then disbands. Two of its
members emigrate to America, and found a club with the same name and rules, but different members.
What is this example supposed to show?
●
the question,
is it the same club?
, makes no difference at all; the same applies to
is it the same
person?
in the split-brain case.
3-What is the example involving the split-brain case and the brain transplant supposed to show about
survival and personal identity?
●
the relation that matters for survival isn’t transitive, unlike identity.
4-Match each person with their view on personal identity.
●
personal identity consists in sameness of memory: John Locke
●
personal identity consists in sameness of soul: Socrates/Plato
●
there are no facts about personal identity, but there are facts about something close enough,
"q-identity", which consists in psychological continuity: Derek Parfit
●
there is no essential self, just a bundle of perceptions in continuing succession: David Hume
●
there are no facts about memory without facts about personal identity; so there may be facts
about personal identity, even if we are in no position to know them: Charles Daniels
5-If two things are qualitatively identical in every observable way, then they are numerically identical.
●
False
6-What is a demonstrative?
●
a word like "that" or "this" used to refer directly to a particular
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7-What is the difference between:
(A) The President of the USA in 2018
and
(B) The Actual President of the USA in 2018
●
Trump might not have been (A), but Trump is necessarily (B)
8-According to Section 4.1 in the textbook, part K,
"Proper names like "Jeff" are commonly called "rigid designators" -- that is, they
_____________________________."
●
designate the same object in every possible world
9-What is an "indexical"?
●
a word like "I" or "you" which refers based on the context in which it is spoken
10-What are the two ways that words can refer?
●
through a description and through direct reference
Other questions
1-Suppose that when people in the distant future become very old, they will receive the option to record
their memories and pass these along to their future unborn great-grandchildren as memories, so that their
great-grandchildren are born with these memories of having lived the life that their great-grandparents
lived, along with all the accumulated wisdom of their life. On which theory of personal identity would it be
true to say that the great-grandparent
literally
lives on in their great-grandchild?
●
Locke's memory theory OR Parfit's Psychological Continuity Theory (maybe)
2-You walk into a teleportation device in Old Main. When you push the button, it will make a copy of all of
your molecules, and then reproduce an exact replica of you in Tokyo, which will be the same as you
psychologically and will remember having been you, walking into the device, and pushing the button;
meanwhile, your current body will be dissolved into nothingness. Every view of personal identity interprets
this in a different way. Which view would say that pushing the button would kill you; that is, you would not
survive and would be mistaken to look forward to being in Tokyo?
●
Daniels's view that there is a further unknowable fact
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3-Someday you are the genius who cures cancer, solves poverty, and discovers the secret to world
peace. After receiving triple Nobel prizes for your accomplishments, you are flown to a secret crypt in
Gothenburg where Swedish scientists offer to clone you. Your body will be divided into 1,000 pieces, and
from each piece a new body which is an exact duplicate of your current body will be grown, and then each
clone will receive an exact duplicate of your current memories and psychology -- so that, when each clone
wakes up, the last thing the clone will remember is having been you winning three Nobel prizes. On which
view of personal identity would it be correct to say that you would not die, but in fact would survive as
1,000 people?
●
the bodily identity theory of personal identity Hume's theory Locke's memory theory OR Parfit's
Psychological Continuity Theory
4-Suppose that Frank Jackson is right that there are facts about what it is like to be me. Suppose that
Locke is right that personal identity consists in sameness of memory. Which of the following facts would
by itself guarantee that I will continue to exist when my body dies?
●
an omniscient being exists
5-Assume I am essentially a functioning physical substance, my body. At death, my body will cease to
function. However, I still might survive death. How?
●
A qualitatively identical body might be brought into existence.
6-Assume I am essentially a non-physical mental substance (or soul), not a functioning physical body.
Nonetheless, when my body dies, I might also cease to exist. Why?
●
When my body dies, my non-physical mental substance (or soul) might also cease to exist.
7- The difference between an
intrinsic
property and an
extrinsic
property is that something has an intrinsic
property in virtue of being itself, but an extrinsic property in virtue of...
●
its relation to other things
8-My name is Jeff, and I am sitting at this computer right now. Which of the following definitions of "me"
gives necessary and sufficient conditions for being me?
●
All the above
9-Suppose I define my essential self as "the actual teacher of this class". The question, "why am I
this
person
teaching the class" is then equivalent to the question . . .
●
why is this world the actual world?
●
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1-According to the video, one objection to theism from Occam's Razor is that . . .
●
atheism is preferable, since it is a simpler theory than theism
2-Three attributes are traditionally associated with God in Western philosophy, which all start with the
letter “O”. What are they?
●
Omniscience, Omnibenevolence, and Omnipotence
3-According to the Video, the ethical argument for God’s existence concludes that it is ____________ to
believe that God exists, even if there is no justification for the belief.
●
morally necessary (obligatory)
4- “A few people are tone deaf; some have a light understanding of music; but a handful of people have
the talent to compose original works, like Bach or Beethoven.” What are these things supposed to
correspond to, on C. D. Broad's analogy for religious experience?
●
tone deaf: people who have no religious experiences
●
light understanding of music: people with average religious experiences
●
talent to compose original works: people with extreme religious experiences
●
Bach and Beethoven: prophet
5-According to C. D. Broad's views on religious experience, someone who holds that religious
experiences are accurate representations is someone who interprets religious experiences as analogous
to . . .
●
people who can see, living in societies of people who are blind.
6-The video defines "Abrahamic monotheism" as the shared belief in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam that
one God exists , who is/are [ Select ], and on whom the universe depends , who cannot be [ Select ],
while recognizing other differences between these religious views.
●
Answer 1: one God exists
●
A 2: not part of the universe
●
A 3: on whom the universe depends
●
A 4: represented
7-Select ALL of the following which are examples of what is meant in this class by "a religious
experience", as discussed in Section 5.1 Part B of the textbook.
●
feeling part of passing down a religious tradition from the past
●
a sense of mystical insight into a higher plane of reality
●
a feeling that one's prayers are being heard
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- feeling a sense of belonging in a religious community
8-THREE of the following are presented in the textbook, Section 5.1 Part A, as part of the minimal
definition of "God" for the purposes of reading the philosophers studied in this unit. ONE of the following is
not part of the minimal definition of "God" for our purposes, though it is part of what many people think of
when they hear the word God. Which one of the following is NOT part of the minimal definition of the word
"God" presented?
●
God is love
9-Defining God as "transcendent" in Western philosophy means that God _____________________, so
looking for God inside the world would be a mistake.
●
is distinct from the world
10-Match each term with its definition, according to the video.
●
hard atheist: believes that no God or Gods Exist
●
soft atheist: does not believe that god exists
●
polytheist: believes that many gods exist
●
theist: believes that a God or gods exist.
●
monotheist: believes that there is exactly one god
●
pantheist: believes that the cosmos is god
●
agnostic: does not believe that a belief either way about God's existence could be justified
5B
1-Suppose that everything in the world has an explanation. What three possibilities are there for where
the chain of explanations goes?
●
infinite, circular, or stops with a basic explainer
2-How did Baruch Spinoza reject the cosmological argument, according to Section 5.1 in the textbook,
Part I?
●
there are no logically possible worlds but our own
3-According to Section 5.1 of the textbook, Part I, what must both atheists and theists agree about?
●
not everything has an explanation
4-The principle of non-circularity says that...
●
explanations cannot be circular
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5-The principle that everything representable has an explanation is called the . . .
●
principle of sufficient reason
6-One version of the cosmological argument says that, because every event in our world has a prior
cause, God must exist to cause the first event that caused everything in our world. Which of the following
is a rebuttal suggested in the textbook that can be offfered against this argument?
●
The notion of “cause” makes no sense prior to the big bang and to time.
7-The question “Why is the actual world this world and not some other world?”, can be used to form a
cosmological argument, because any answer which appeals to some feature of the actual world to
answer the question will
●
raise the same question.
8-"The most basic physical thing in the world, like quarks or strings, is contingent, and so must depend on
something else for its existence.” This premise plays a role in one form of the ________ argument.
●
Cosmological
9-The causal argument for God’s existence starts with the premise that every event in our world has a
cause, and concludes that God caused every event in our world. Why doesn’t the theist consider “what
caused God?” to be a legitimate objection to this cosmological argument?
●
the theist doesn’t assert that God is an event in our world.
10-Three of the following are responses which an atheist might give to the cosmological argument. One of
the following is NOT a response which an atheist can give. Select which one is not a response to the
cosmological argument that might be given by an atheist (though it might be given by a pantheist).
●
the world itself is transcendent and its own ultimate explainer
11-Which of the following is a possible rebuttal to cosmological arguments, given in the textbook?
●
The questions asked by the argument are mis-formed, and their answers are trivial truths of
language rather than deep mysteries.
5C
1-In reply to the teleological argument, how might an atheist must accept that there is order or purpose in
nature while denying that this is the result of a divine designer of nature?
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●
by saying that the evolutionary process tends to select things which survive and reproduce, and
that provides the goal or purpose for things in nature.
2-How does Hume critique the teleological argument?
●
it shows too little: it doesn’t establish whether the creator was one god or a team of gods, or a
powerful demon, or a clumsy being who made a lot of mistakes.
3-Anselm's version of the ontological argument depends on the premise that:
●
existing in reality is greater than existing only in the conception.
4-Paley’s argument includes the premise that if something is produced by _____________ then it will
have a clear purpose and function.
●
someone's intentions
5-What is Gaunilo’s critique of the Ontological argument?
●
it equally proves that the “the greatest island conceivable” exists.
6-According to Hume, if we accept the “watchmaker” analogy in the teleological argument, then we should
accept that the designer also has . . .
●
eyes, ears, a nose, and a mouth.
7-Section 5.1 of the textbook, Part K presents a version of the ontological argument. Premise (2) of this
argument is the key premise. What does it say?
●
necessarily exists is greater than a being which does not necessarily exist
8-Teleological arguments are supposed to be
[ Select ], whereas ontological arguments are supposed to
be
●
empirical
●
A priori
9-According to Section 5.1 of the textbook, Part K, "In a Reductio argument, you assume the opposite of
what you want to prove, show that a contradiction follows from this assumption, and conclude that your
assumption must have been false .
10-Why does the Ontological argument assume that God does not exist?
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●
in order to show that a contradiction follows; hence, God does exist.
11-What is meant by the phrase “God of the gaps”, as a critique of the Teleological argument?
●
Even if one thinks God is the best explanation at the time, as we come to explain more, there will
be fewer gaps for God to fill.
Others shit
1-Darla's absence of a religious experience as of God is evidence for Darla of an absence of a God only if
it is reasonable to expect that, if God exists, then God would produce a religious experience for Darla.
Why might a theist tell Darla that she is mistaken to expect such an experience?
●
a theist could give ANY of these answers
2-Why might someone without any religious experiences nonetheless conclude on the basis of their own
lack of experience of something of the highest importance that God exists?
●
if they haven't found what's most important to them in the world, it must be outside of the world
3-Angie's religious experience as of the presence of God is evidence for Angie of the existence of God
only if it is reasonable to expect that Angie is less likely to have such an experience if God did not exist
than if God does exist. Why might an atheist tell Angie that she is mistaken to think her experience is
evidence of the existence of God?
●
an atheist could give ANY of these answers
4-Suppose that "God" were not defined in Western philosophy as transcendent. Why would this cause the
cosmological argument to fail?
●
God would then need explained, according to the principle of sufficient reason
5-How does the cosmological argument rule out the possibility that the Ultimate Explainer of the world is
made out of speghetti?
●
Speghetti is representable
6-Suppose that there are many worlds rather than one world. Instead of asking, "why does the world
exist?" the cosmological argument would then ask . . .
●
why is our world actual?
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7-Central to the ontological argument is the idea of "greatness" or "perfection". Omniscience means
knowing all things and omnipotence means being able to do all things, and so these are considered kinds
of maximum "greatness". How does the theist argue that necessarily existing is a kind of "greatness" just
like these?
●
it means existing in all possible worlds
8-Suppose I randomly shuffle a deck of 52 cards. I then deal you the first card up, and it is a Ace of
Spades. In a sense, it was improbable that I pulled out an Ace of Spades, because there was only a 1 in
52 chance of doing so. But that doesn't mean that anything but random chance explains why I drew out
an Ace of Spades. According to one way an atheist can respond to the teleological argument, this is a
good analogy to how...
●
it is highly improbable that earth would be fine-tuned for life and intelligent humans would evolve
9-A non-existent war is clearly
not
greater
for us
than an existing war. But this isn't the sense in which
Anselm is using the notion of "greatness". Anselm means by "greatness" . . .
●
what makes a thing great for itself on its own terms
●
Practice Quiz 5D
1-According to the reading in the textbook in Part N, the Problem of Evil arises because the
Cosmological, Ontological, and Teleological arguments all appear to suggest that ___________, which
seems to conflict with what we observe in our world.
●
God would make the best of all possible worlds
2-There are many explanations for why God might allow suffering. According to section P of the textbook,
whatever reasons God might have for allowing evil, the reasons would need to be ______________,
since God is capable of bringing about any logically possible world.
●
Necessary
3-According to the textbook, in Part O, in Version 2 of the Problem of evil, a contradiction arises between
the premise that evil events do occur, the premise that God is all-good, all-knowing, and all-powerful, and
the premise that, if someone all-good knows an evil event will occur and has the power to prevent the evil,
then that person will . . .
●
intervene to prevent the evil event, and the evil event won't occur
4-As discussed in the textbook, Part P, Version 3 of the Problem of Evil includes the premise that, if
someone all-good knows an evil event will occur and has the power to prevent the evil, then that person
will intervene to prevent the evil event and the evil event won’t occur,
unless
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●
that person has a sufficiently good reason to do so.
5-According to the textbook, Parts N & O, one response to Version 1 of the problem of evil states that
God didn’t create this world, but rather God created another, better world, and this world is the result of
human wrongdoing; so, God isn’t responsible for the evil in this world. How does the problem of evil
respond to this objection when it is revised in Version 2?
●
even if God didn’t create the evil, he could still intervene to stop or prevent it.
6-Many theists believe that so much bad stuff is happening all of the time on Earth entirely because of . . .
●
human wrongdoing
7-The Cosmological argument defines God as the Ultimate Explainer. According to the Problem of Evil,
that means God is . . .
●
Ultimately Responsible for what happens in the world
8-Which three of the "perfections" of God discussed in the ontological argument are part of the problem of
evil?
●
Omnipotence, Omniscience, and Omnibenevolence
9-According to Section 5.1 of the textbook Part N, In the
dialectic
of the problem of evil, who is on offense,
and who is on defense?
●
theist on defense, atheist on offense
10-The "problem of evil" is the problem of the compatibility of the existence of God with the
____________
●
existence of evil
Practice Quiz 5E
1-According to the Video, Swinburne proposes that maybe God created a less than perfect world,
allowing some suffering, to make possible
●
our creating a more perfect world by slowly ending the suffering.
2-The Doctrine of ____________ says that one may foresee an evil effect resulting from one's actions,
but not be responsible for the evil effect, provided that one did not intend the evil effect to happen.
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●
double effect
3-What is a sense in which some theists, like the Stoics, might claim God is "good",
without
claiming that
God cares about our suffering?
●
God is good in the sense of being pure, noble, or exalted
4-Why doesn’t the Free Will defense resolve the Problem of Evil?
●
although it explains why God allows active evil, it doesn’t explain why God allows passive evil
5-Saying that God allows evil for __________ reasons does not solve the problem of evil, because God
could have simply made a different world.
●
contingent
6-According to Swinburne, when a sadist tortures an innocent person,[ Select ]
is the action the torturer is taking, and [ Select ]is the effect which the tortured person experiences.
●
Active evil
●
Passive evil
7-In the textbook, Part S, Version 5 of the problem of evil adds something to premises 1 and 2. What
claim had to be added to maintain the argument?
●
God’s being all-good requires that he be compassionate.
8-In the textbook, Part R, the distinction Swinburne makes between active evil and passive evil requires
revising the problem of evil. How does version 4 of the problem of evil differ from previous versions?
●
“Evil” needs to be replaced with “suffering”, or passive evil
9-One defense discussed in Section 5.1 of the textbook part Q says that God allows evil for necessary
reasons, because our having ____________ is a sufficiently great good to justify allowing us to do evil.
●
free will
10-One response to the problem of evil offered in the textbook, part S, which it calls “Dostoevsky’s
Response”, rejects premise 2 of the argument by denying that:
●
having compassion requires intervening to stop suffering.
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Practice Quiz 5F
1-According to the textbook, which of the following is a false stereotype of atheists that studying the
Philosophy of Religion shows us is false?
●
atheists do not believe in morality
2-How does actual religion differ from the philosophy of religion, according on Section 5.1 of the textbook,
Part T?
●
philosophy is about claims; religion is a way of life
3-According to the textbook, which of the following is a false stereotype of theists that studying the
Philosophy of Religion shows us is false?
●
theists do not believe in reasoning
4-_______ arguments argue a priori from the concept of God to the conclusion that God exists.
●
Ontological
5-“Like a watch, the cosmos has clear purposes and functions, signs of order, natural patterns.” This
premise plays a role in the __________ argument.
●
Teleological
6-Which argument begins by defining God as “that than which none greater can be conceived”?
●
Ontological
7-_______ arguments argue from some contingent feature of our world, and some principle about
explanations, to the conclusion that a necessary being exists to explain the contingent feature.
●
Cosmological
8-_______ arguments argue from the appearance of design or reason in the world to conclusion that a
rational designer or source of reason must exist.
●
Teleological
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9-_________ arguments argue from experiences that an individual or group of individuals has which are
represented as experiences of God, to the conclusion that God exists.
●
Experiential
10-Which argument begins by defining God as "that than which none greater can be conceived"?
●
Ontological
Other questions
-John stubbed his toe this morning. Why might an atheist object that Joe's learning to be more careful
doesn't really explain why God allowed Joe to experience the pain of learning to stub his toe?
●
God could have made Joe more careful to begin with
-Many theists hold that God allows evil for necessary reasons that couldn't be otherwise, but that these
reasons are beyond our understanding. Which of the following is the best rebuttal an atheist could give?
●
it seems more likely that evil happens randomly, for no reason at all
-Suppose you see a stranger's child drowning and you can save the child. Which of the following is an
acceptable reason to let them drown?
●
saving the child would require sacrificing a greater good; for instance, dropping your own 2
children into the water and letting them drown to save the other child
-According to some theists, why does the imperfection of our world not imply that God did not create a
perfect world?
●
God might have made many worlds
-Which of the following is a case in which stopping somebody's suffering might be, according to many
people, the wrong thing to do?
●
enabling an addict to continue their addiction instead of experiencing the consequences
-One response to the problem of evil states that God will make everything right in the end, with justice that
makes victims well and reconciles everyone in forgiveness and harmony, torture victims and torturers all
embracing. How does Dostoevsky's chracater Ivan Karamazov respond to this?
●
for the love of humanity, he would rather remain indignant than accept such a harmony.
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-If someone accepts that there is a real Problem of Evil, which of the following can't they accept?
●
there is no God there are no facts about morality
-Suppose a theist believes that what is morally right is necessarily the same as what God commands.
Why would the theist still have to figure out morality in the same way as an atheist? That is, why would
the theist still have to independently understand what is right and wrong?
●
otherwise, how would they recognize whether or not God commanded something?
-Some theists say that God is good by nature or definition, but other theists say that "good" just means
"what God wills". If the world is how God wills it, and "good" just means "what God wills", then there is no
evil in the world, so this would resolve the problem of evil. What problem would it raise, however?
●
How does god ever do anything for a reason
●
Practice Quiz 6A
1-
Match up each examples of specific moral norms some people accept with the corresponding
way of
thinking about ethics
givein in Section 6.1 Part A of the textbook.
●
state of purity- one should not eat dead animals
●
character or virtue- one should strive to be wise, educated, and reflective
●
reciprocity and loyalty- one should never give aid to the enemies of one's people
●
obedience to authority- one should respect the outcomes of democratic elections
●
just principles- one should never steal what belongs to someone else
●
bringing about the most good in the world- one should try to reduce the amount of suffering from
disease and famine
●
freedom- one should act on one's own well-considered reasons
●
relationships- one should not judge others for the things they do wrong
2-Which of the following is given in the textbook, Section 6.1 Part B, as a reason to be skeptical about
there being objective moral truths?
●
it isn't easy to see what sort of evidence could prove one side correct and the other incorrect
3-"Moral" or "Ethical" questions, also called "normative" or "prescriptive" questions, are questions about
●
how the world should be
4-According to Section 6.1 Part B of the textbook, what does the "Verification Principle" say?
"There can be a fact of the matter about some subject matter . . . only in those cases where topics about
that subject matter ____ ____ ______ ___ ____ ______"
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●
can be shown to be true
5-Match the view in Meta-Ethics (the response to whether or not there are moral truths) with the analogy it
makes between morality and something else, as given in the textbook in Section 6.1 Part C.
●
subjectivism- some people think cilantro is tasty, others that it is gross
●
anti-realist non-cognitivism- there is no fact of the matter about whether "Go ASU!" is true
●
conventionalism-some societies believe mullets are cool, others don't
●
absolutism-it is wrong to believe something you know is false
●
situationalism- sometimes you should take the US 60 to Phoenix, other times the 202
6-Unlike any moral objectivist, some moral relativists believe that __________.
●
moral facts change depending on culture, or the individual speaking.
7-Match each view with what it holds
●
moral absolutism- moral principles do not change depending on anything
●
moral situationalism- morality depends on the details of the situation one is in
●
individual ethical relativism- morality depends on what an individual believes is moral
●
cultural ethical relativism-morality depends on what a society believes is moral
●
non-cognitivism- morality is an expression of feeling, not a truth
●
error theory- we are tragically confused: we think there are moral truths, but there aren't any
●
moral realism- there are some moral truths
●
moral anti-realism- there are no moral truths
8-Unlike a moral anti-realist, a moral realist ____________.
●
believes there is a fact of the matter about morality.
9-Unlike some moral relativists, all moral objectivists believe that _________.
●
the moral facts don’t change between cultures.
10-Unlike any moral objectivist, some moral relativists believe that __________.
●
moral facts change depending on culture, or the individual speaking.
Practice Quiz 6B
1-According to Kant's views on ethics, one should always treat the humanity in one’s self and in others [
Select ]as a(n) means , but [ Select ] as a(n) [ Select ]
- never merely
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●
Means
●
Always at least partly
●
End in itself
2-According to the reading, on Kant's view, moral truths are known . . .
●
a priori, through knowing the obligation not to act on a contradictory maxim
3-According to the textbook, why does the central argument for moral anti-realism seem
self-contradictory?
●
it denies that there are any facts about what we should do, yet argues that we should believe the
verification principle.
4-When Kant uses the phrase "kingdom of ends", he means to say that . . .
●
morality is like a government that only enacts those laws which everyone could agree to
consistently follow
5-What is the first formulation of Kant’s categorical imperative?
●
Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time wil that it should become a universal
law.
6-In the Video, consequentialism is defined as the view that . . .
●
An action is right if and only if its results are as good or better as any alternative act, and an
action is wrong if and only if its results are less good than some alternative act.
7-On Kant's deontological view of ethics, nothing can be called “good” without qualification, except for . . .
●
a good will
8-According to the video, for the virtue ethicist, what are the proper subjects of moral evaluation?
●
People
9-A virtue ethicist is not so concerned with evaluating whether an action is right or wrong, as with
evaluating the _______ of the person performing the action.
●
Character
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10-According to the video, how does a utilitarian like Mill reply to the objection that supposing that life has
no higher end than pleasure is a "doctrine worthy of swine" or “pig philosophy”, which reduces people to
groveling animals?
●
Mill argues that there are differences of quality in pleasures, with the higher pleasures (like
poetry) being valued far more highly by those who have experienced them than the lower
pleasures are (like eating pie).
Other shit
1-Three of the following are examples of Kant’s categorical imperative in practice. One of the following is
not an example of Kant’s categorical imperative. Which one is
not
an example of Kant’s categorical
imperative?
●
I have a duty to use honest scales when dealing with customers, because if I used a dishonest
scale then I would eventually get caught, soiling my reputation and causing my customers to go
to other vendors.
2-Which of the following sentences, according to Kant, would correspond to a Categorical Imperative?
●
“You ought not to promise anything deceitfully, for you cannot will that everyone should do so."
3-Which of the following is a legitimate goal of a criminal justice system for someone who follows Kant's
ethics?
●
(justice) consistently punishing all violations of the law equally, in proportion to the severity of the
crime
4-(1) Moral truths are not entirely known through observation
(2) There are moral truths
(3) If something is not known entirely through observation, then there are no truths about it.
These three claims are incompatible. To avoid contradiction, someone must deny either (1) or (2) or (3).
Which view denies (1)?
●
moral relativism
5-(1) Moral truths are not known entirely through observation
(2) There are moral truths
(3) If something is not known entirely through observation, then there are no truths about it.
These three claims are incompatible. To avoid contradiction, someone must deny either (1) or (2) or (3).
Which view denies (3)?
●
moral objectivism
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6- (1) Moral truths are not known entirely through observation
(2) There are moral truths
(3) If something is not known entirely through observation, then there are no truths about it.
These three claims are incompatible. To avoid contradiction, someone must deny either (1) or (2) or (3).
Which view denies (2)?
●
moral anti-realism
7-A deontologist believes that:
●
some actions are right or wrong independent of their consequences.
●
6c
1-According to the reading about Aristotle's views on virtue ethics, how does Aristotle think virtue is
acquired?
●
through habituation and training
2-For a Virtue Ethicist like Aristotle, a person who has virtue . . .
●
has the disposition to do what is right when faced with a new situation
3-According to the definition offered in the reading about Mill's views in ethics, a "hedonist" in ethics
means a person who believes the only good is . . .
●
happiness or pleasure for everyone, weighed equally
4-In Aristotle's view on ethics, virtues can be found by having a disposition to choose the . . .
●
mean between two extremes.
5-For a "Utilitarian", as Mill defines it, what should be done with things which have no other use except to
be beautiful, ornamental, or merely amusing?
●
they have moral value because they cause people pleasure or happiness
6-Match the Aristotelian Virtues with their corresponding Vices, as presented in Section 6.1 Part G of the
textbook.
●
Courage: cowardice
●
Truthfulness: boastfulness
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●
Friendliness: flattery
●
Magnificence: vulgarity
●
Temperance: Self-indulgence
●
Ready-Wittedness: boorishness
7-For someone like Aristotle, "happiness" means
●
the feeling of satisfaction at fulfilling one's function
8-According to Section 6.1 in the textbook, Part F, another objection to utilitarianism, raised by the
American Philosopher John Rawls (1921-2022) is that:"Utilitarianism leaves out _________ ___ ____
______ ___ ______ ______."
●
justice and any consideration of people's rights
9-For Aristotle's Virtue Ethics, the supreme good for humans is...
●
happiness, in the sense of fulfilling one's function as a rational being
10-A consequentialist believes that what makes it right or wrong for me to do some action, is:
●
whether the action produces more good or bad consequences for the world in general.
6D
1-According to an Agent-Causal Libertarian like Taylor, we are sometimes, though not always,
_____________________________
●
self-determining beings
2-In section 6.1 part J of the textbook, one definition of "Free Will" is called "implausible" because it
conflicts with the fact that agents are born, or that an asteroid did not destroy the earth five years ago.
That definition says:
"An agent's action
A
is free if and only if it has ___________________"
●
no causes outside of the agent's control
3-According to a Logical-Entailment Determinist like d’Holbach, if we accept that
___________________________________, then we will see that free will is an illusion.
●
reality is a system of material particles operating according to fixed laws of motion
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4-Why is determinism potentially a problem for Ethics?
●
because if I don't act freely, then I can't be blamed for what I do
5-In section 6.1 part J of the textbook, one definition of "Determinism" is called "trivial" because, while it is
obviously true, it also is obvious that it has no relationship to moral responsibility or blame, and so it is not
important to what concerns us about free will. That definition says:
"An event is determined if and only if it has ____________."
●
a cause at a prior point in time
6-According to the Video, on the view of free will held by
non-agent-causal Libertarians
, an agent’s
action
A
at time
t
is free if and only if:
●
It is a natural possibility at
t
for the agent to have done otherwise than
A
.
7-Suppose that a study shows that your choices are predictable with 80% certainty in advance by a
computer, before you even started to think about them, through allowing a computer to access a scan of
your brain and observations of your past actions. What kind of determinism would this be evidence for?
●
Trivial Determinism
8-According to the Video, on the view of
causal-exclusive determinism
held by some contemporary
determinists, a determinist is committed to the view that:
●
our choices are only caused by events outside of our control, including past events and random
chance events.
9-According to the Video, on the
logical-entailment determinism
held by d’Holbach, a determinist is
committed to the view that:
●
given prior states of the world and the laws of nature, it is not a natural possibility for future events
to go any differently than they do.
10-Suppose that someone argues that free will is an illusion that we've developed in order to be held
morally responsible by one another, but that in fact our own explanations of why we do things has little
connection to what an objective observer would say are our real reasons for doing things. Because of
this, they say, we don't really exercize direct causal control over our own actions.
What kind of libertarianism are they aruging against?
●
agent-causal libertarianism
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11-According to the video, on the view of determinism held by
emergentists
such as Samuel Alexander,
a determinist is committed to the view that:
●
nothing more is needed for our choices to occur than prior states of the world and the laws of
nature, though we may still be causes of our choices.
12-Suppose Joe is hooked up to an IV with short-term memory erasing drugs, so that he can't remember
what he was doing one minute ago. Every minute, he is presented, as though for the first time, with the
choice of whether or not to push a button which will electrocute Donna. The experiment is repeated 100
times, but each time Joe thinks it is happening for the first time, and he doesn't remember what he did the
previous time. Careful attention is paid to ensure that nothing changes in Joe's environment.
Suppose that 99 times out of 100, Joe electrocutes Donna, but 1 time out of 100, Joe does not. What kind
of "Free Will" is this evidence for?
●
non-agent-causal libertarianism
13-According to the Video, on a
compatibilist
view of free will like Stace's, an agent’s action
A
at time
t
is
free if and only if:
●
The agent did not do
A
under external forces or compulsion at
t
.
14-According to the Video, on the view of free will held by
agent-causal Libertarians
, including Taylor,
an agent’s action
A
at time
t
is free if and only if:
●
The agent is the sole cause of
A
, which originates at
t
out of nothing.
15-Suppose that a study shows that "free will" decreases the more you exercize your willpower, but
increases after you do give in to small temptations like eating donuts. The idea is that you are more able
to be a cause of your actions when you've stored up your willpower, but you are less able to be a cause of
your actions when your willpower is exhausted. What sense of "Free Will" is the study talking about, when
it suggests that eating donuts increases your free will?
●
agent-causal free will
6E
1-According to Stace's argument for compatibilism discussed in the Video, what attitude should
philosophers take towards the way people ordinarily use a word outside of philosophy, when it conflicts
with the specialized sense of the word in philosophy?
●
They should not disregard the ordinary use, since it is what really matters.
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2-Some of the following would be considered "Free" by Stace, and some would not. Some of the following
would be considered free a traditional libertarian, and some would not. Which one of the following
WOULD be considered "Free" by Stace, but WOULD NOT be considered free by a libertarian?
●
Sally develops, as an inevitable product of her genetic code and upbringing, a strong desire for
candy that makes it impossible not to eat candy, and so she eats candy all day and enjoys it.
3-Some of the following would be considered "Free" by Stace, and some would not. Some of the following
would be considered free a traditional libertarian, and some would not. Which one of the following
WOULD NOT be considered "Free" by Stace, but WOULD be considered free by many forms of
libertarianism?
●
Billy steals because he is threatened by the mafia to steal or die, and he chooses to give in to the
threat rather than die, although he could have chosen otherwise.
4-According to a compatibilist like Stace, an act is free when its immediate causes are [ Select ], as
opposed to [ Select ]
●
psychological states of the agent
●
forces outside of the agent
5-According to the Video, how do compatibilists distinguish "inside" from "outside" forces? Match the
"inside" forces to "Inside Forces", and the "outside" forces to "Outside Forces". The numbers in
parenthesis indicate the alphabetical order of the answers -- for instance, "Inside Forces (1st)" indicates
the first "Inside Forces" answer in alphabetical order, "Inside Forces (2nd)" the second in alphabetical
order.
●
Inside Forces (3rd)- Psychology
●
Inside Forces (2nd)-Desires
●
Outside Forces (3rd)-Weather
●
Outside Forces (2nd)-Threats
●
Outside Forces (1st)-Diseases
●
Inside Forces (1st)-Beliefs
●
Kind of Both-Social Pressures
6-Suppose that a determinist argues that all of your choices are determined by your prior psychological
states which are entirely determined by outside influences which you had no choice over. How would a
compatibilist respond?
●
your psychological states ARE you
7-Compatibilism is the view that _____ and ____, propertly understood, are compatible.
●
free will and determinism
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Other shit
1-Consequentialism says that we should
●
bring about the most total good minus bad for the world as a whole compared to any alternative
2-Bob wants to go snorkeling. If Bob goes snorkeling, then he will get 5 units of happiness. Nobody will
feel unhappy if Bob goes snorkeling. Why is this NOT enough justification to say that Bob ought to go
snorkeling, according to a Utilitarian?
●
Bob might bring about even more happiness by doing something other than snorkeling, like
volunteering in a soup kitchen
3-Aristotle thinks that the final cause of human beings is to . . .
●
reason in the most excellent way
4-Some Libertarians think that my having free will only requires that I have the ...
●
possibility of doing otherwise
5-Some people argue that physics is
interdeterministic
at the fundamental level and involves a kind of
random chance. If true, this would support ______________ libertarianism but would not necessarily
support ________ libertarianism
●
non-agent-causal; agent-causal
6-Some Libertarians think that there are two different kinds of causation. What are they?
●
event causation and agent causation
7-Suppose that you aren't decided the day before an election who you are going to vote for in the
election, candidate A or candidate B. When you go to sleep that night, someone from candidate B's
campaign installs a chip in your brain which, if you decide to vote for candidate A in the morning, will give
you an electrical shock that overpowers your brain and forces you to decide to vote for candidate B. This
means that there are only two possibilities:
(a) You decide to vote for A, are shocked, and decide to vote for B
(b) You decide to vote for B
Either way, you must decide to vote for B. So, it is not possible for you to not decide to vote for B.
In the morning, you wake up and decide that you will vote for B because you like her tax cut plan. You
never get an electric shock, you just cast a ballot for B and go home.
To some people who hear this story, it sounds like your voting for B was something you did
freely
. What
would this be evidence of?
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●
Idk
8-Which of the following suggests a reason to doubt compatibilism?
●
it doesn't seem like you can be morally responsible for doing something if you couldn't do
differently
9-Some children's rides at theme parks involve sitting in a "car" that is on a fixed track. The car moves
forward along the fixed track; the child holds the steering wheel and pretends to be driving the car, but the
car would move forward even if the child were asleep.
Suppose that someone argues that, if logical-entailment determinism is true, then our sense of free will
would be an illusion, like the child's sense of driving the car, and we would not really have free will.
So, even though we might think free will and determinism could both be true, they aren't, because if
determinism is true then free will doesn't exist. What would this be an argument against?
●
compatibilism
●
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