TOK ESSAY FINAL

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Title 4: Is it problematic that knowledge is so often shaped by the values of those who produced it? Discuss with reference to any two AOK’s . IBDP Exam Session: November 2023 Word Count: 1550

Is it problematic that knowledge is so often shaped by the values of those who produced it? Discuss with reference to any two AOK’s. Elwyn White once said, "All writing slants the way a writer leans, and no man is born perpendicular" (White, 1955). ‘Values’ are the subjective beliefs people hold that influence how they approach most aspects of their lives. Thus, it can be inferred that the knowledge produced by humanity, whether consciously or subconsciously, is influenced by one's values. It could be argued from the perspective of epistemic relativism that knowledge is always situated within a particular context and cannot be entirely objective or value-neutral. Instead, knowledge is shaped by the observer's perspective, making it inherently subjective to some extent, posing the question, is it problematic that values shape knowledge? Through the lens’ of History and the Natural Sciences, something that is ‘problematic’ either perpetuates discriminatory attitudes and inequality or hinders the effectiveness of the produced knowledge. Within History, it is not always problematic that knowledge is shaped by the values of those who produce it, as it provides historians with the opportunity to explore various perspectives and develop a contextual understanding of historical events. An integral component of historians’ jobs is critically analysing primary and secondary sources to uncover information about a specific time or period. In the case of the British colonisation of Australia in the late 1700s, historians are able to analyse the legitimacy of the claim of terra nullius (nobody's land) through colonial and indigenous perspectives. In First Fleet member Arthur Bowes Smyth’s journal, he recounts his first impressions of the Aboriginal people as “a most stupid insensible continued set of beings” whose language was “excessively loud and harsh and seems to consist of a very short vocabulary” and who lived in “wigwams” (Smyth, 2020). Smyth’s impressions of the Aboriginals were a product of his colonial mindset and reflected the ethnocentric and evangelical values held by Western Europe at the time, which placed heavy value on civilised behaviour, 2

Is it problematic that knowledge is so often shaped by the values of those who produced it? Discuss with reference to any two AOK’s. architecture, and literature. Thus, from Smyth’s colonial perspective, the Aboriginals did not possess ownership of the land as he did not believe they displayed any signs of developing civilisation. Whereas from the indigenous perspective of artist William Barak who was an advocate for indigenous rights in 1890, the Aboriginal people did have ownership of the land as they did indeed have a strong culture and spiritual connection to the land (Vanderbyl, 2016). However, due to the two groups' opposing values and the British invaders' military strength, the land was colonised. Thus, it can be seen that a wide range of sources produced by individuals with differing values and life experiences is far more beneficial to a historian than objective facts, as the values of a society heavily influence social dynamics and behaviours which historians seek to understand. Thus, the embedding of values into knowledge is not problematic as it provides a second layer of knowledge regarding the motives and situation of the individual who produced it, which can be invaluable to historians seeking to understand the cause and effect of events. Conversely, a limitation of biased knowledge is that oftentimes it is used to skew information with the sole purpose of making it more palatable to a closed-minded audience. This is problematic in many ways, mainly as it can be used to gain favour from an audience that wouldn't otherwise agree or protect one's ideology by perpetuating oppressive standards that keep oneself in a position of power. This was the case in the experience of St. Catherine of Siena, a mystic, saint, and doctor of the Church born in 1347, renowned for her intense spirituality, selfless service, and profound influence on the Catholic Church's reform. During the period leading up to her canonisation in 1461, St Catherine’s followers placed heavy emphasis on the production of value-abiding artwork such as Giovanni di Paolo’s series of paintings titled 3

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Is it problematic that knowledge is so often shaped by the values of those who produced it? Discuss with reference to any two AOK’s. ‘The Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine of Siena’ (see Figure A). Paolo’s artwork legitimised Catherine’s campaign for sainthood by appealing to social values of the time, depicting her as a subservient and quiet woman who never overstepped her station through his use of soft lines and her tranquil expression as well as levels in the painting highlighting her respect for the papal hierarchy (di Paolo, 1460). Figure A: One painting from ‘The Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine of Siena’ (di Paolo, 1460) However, it wasn’t until the 1900-2000s, when St Catherine’s letters to the Pope recirculated, that historians uncovered Catherine’s true character and significance to the Church. Fr. John Hardon, the author of The Catechism, was among the first to analyse Catherine’s letters to the Pope and create new, more accurate literature depicting Catherine as a passionate, fiery woman who was respectful but also refused to accept the failures of her leaders. In 2005, Fr. Hardon released an article (Hardon, 2005) detailing Catherine’s blunt call-to-action of Pope Gregory XI, 4

Is it problematic that knowledge is so often shaped by the values of those who produced it? Discuss with reference to any two AOK’s. demanding he returned to Rome when a false Pope took up his mantle, destabilising the Church: "It seems to me, gracious father, that you are like a lamb among wolves" (University of California Davis, 2012). Her boldness made her a maverick of her time which is why when it came time for members of the Church to petition for her to be canonised, they portrayed her as a subservient woman who embodied the values of her time by being meek and reserved, making her more palatable for members of the Church. This false representation of her character perpetuated oppressive attitudes toward women that discouraged them from actively participating in their faith, therefore, making the shaping of this knowledge by the values of 15th Century Catholics problematic. Despite often being viewed as “objective”, knowledge produced within the natural sciences has a long history of being directly linked with the pursuit of religious values. Thus, the integration of values in scientific knowledge can be unproblematic, as it has driven progress rather than acting as a hindrance in the pursuit or effectiveness of knowledge. Many of the most famous scientists, such as Mendel, Grimaldi, and Georges Lemaître, were Catholic priests. Their values as Catholics often played an essential role in their approach to science and thus shaped the knowledge they produced. Lemaître, specifically, often wrote about how it was his faith that encouraged him to pursue scientific research, as he believed that through scientific inquiry, humans could gain insights into the working of the universe and ultimately come closer to understanding their role in the world. So throughout the many gruelling hours of his research, he was sustained by the motivation to learn more about his faith by understanding God's creation (Laracy, 2009). The fruits of Lemaître's effort was most famously his Big Bang Theory which in itself was shaped by Catholic theology, as Lemaître proposed the idea that the universe 5

Is it problematic that knowledge is so often shaped by the values of those who produced it? Discuss with reference to any two AOK’s. originated from an extremely dense and hot state, which he referred to as the "Primeval Atom". Lemaître saw this to be compatible with his Catholic belief system as his theory aligned with the concept of a singular, transcendent moment of creation described in Genesis (American Museum of Natural History, 2019). However, it is important to note that while Lemaître was influenced by his faith, his theories and discoveries were grounded in empirical evidence. Thus, it can be argued that the role of values in shaping knowledge produced in the natural sciences is not always problematic and actually benefits the production of knowledge. Contrastingly, within medicine, it is highly problematic that some knowledge is shaped by the values of its producers, as medical knowledge must be applicable to all people that it will be used in the treatment of. It can be argued that racial biases, which are the product of one’s values, can lead to the creation of one-sided knowledge that does not consider how the different physiology and life experiences of people outside of their racial bubble may impact or contribute to their knowledge. This is most clearly exemplified by Aboriginal and Torres-Strait Islander (ATSI) women who have been historically underrepresented in clinical trials and medical research studies on female gestation - a possible result of racial bias (Durey et al., 2016). As a result, it often goes unacknowledged that the experiences of women of different races throughout pregnancy can be quite different due to biological factors. For example, ATSI women are more likely to have hypertensive disorder caused by excessive stress due to socio-economic or environmental factors contributing to poor health (Campbell et al., 2013). Thus, it can be seen that racial bias has greatly limited the available data on the specific health needs, responses to treatments, and potential risks during pregnancy, which has contributed to the doubled child mortality rate for ATSI children in comparison to non-ATSI children in Australia (Australian 6

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Is it problematic that knowledge is so often shaped by the values of those who produced it? Discuss with reference to any two AOK’s. Government, 2020). Therefore, a lack of diversity in the production of knowledge in the natural sciences is highly problematic as it prevents the pursuit of knowledge in the medical field and denigrates the quality of knowledge produced, limiting its ability to contribute to society and acting in complete opposition to the intended purpose of improving healthcare. In conclusion, the issue of knowledge being shaped by the values of its producers presents a complex and multifaceted dilemma. Examining the perspectives of History and the Natural Sciences reveals contrasting implications of this phenomenon. Historians argue that knowledge influenced by values is necessary to create holistic depictions of historical events, as diverse perspectives provide a comprehensive contextual understanding. However, limitations arise when biased knowledge perpetuates false information or suppresses marginalised voices. St. Catherine of Siena's misrepresentation highlights the harmful consequences of distorting knowledge to align with prevailing societal values, hindering women's empowerment. On the other hand, the Natural Sciences have seen values, particularly religious beliefs, drive scientific progress. Scientists like Georges Lemaître found inspiration in their faith, leading to significant discoveries. However, racial biases in medical research, exemplified by inadequate gestational information for ATSI women, demonstrates the detrimental effects of value-driven knowledge. Ultimately, acknowledging the inherent biases in knowledge production and actively seeking diverse perspectives can help mitigate the problems arising from the shaping of knowledge by values. Therefore, when considering the notion that knowledge will never be without the bias of one’s values, it is not wholly problematic that knowledge is often shaped by the values of its producer. 7

Is it problematic that knowledge is so often shaped by the values of those who produced it? Discuss with reference to any two AOK’s. References American Museum of Natural History. (2019). Georges Lemaitre: Father of the Big Bang | AMNH . American Museum of Natural History. https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum- collections/cosmic-horizons-book/georges-lemaitre-big-bang Australian Government. (2020). Child Mortality | Closing The Gap . Ctgreport.niaa.gov.au. https://ctgreport.niaa.gov.au/child-mortality#:~:text=Key%20points Campbell, S. K., Lynch, J., Esterman, A., & McDermott, R. (2013). Pre-pregnancy predictors of hypertension in pregnancy among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women in north Queensland, Australia; a prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health , 13 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-138 Di Paolo, G. (1460). Art in Tuscany | Giovanni di Paolo | The life of St. Catherine of Siena . Www.travelingintuscany.com. http://www.travelingintuscany.com/art/giovannidipaolo/lifeofcatherineofsiena.htm Durey, A., McEvoy, S., Swift-Otero, V., Taylor, K., Katzenellenbogen, J., & Bessarab, D. (2016). Improving healthcare for Aboriginal Australians through effective engagement between community and health services. BMC Health Services Research , 16 (1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-016-1497-0 Hardon, Fr. J. (2005). Fr. Hardon Archives - Life and Significance of St. Catherine of Siena . Www.therealpresence.org. http://www.therealpresence.org/archives/Church_Dogma/Church_Dogma_009.htm Laracy, J. (2009). Library : The Faith and Reason of Father George Lemaître . Www.catholicculture.org. https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm? recnum=8847 8

Is it problematic that knowledge is so often shaped by the values of those who produced it? Discuss with reference to any two AOK’s. Smyth, A. B. (2020). A Journal of a Voyage from Portsmouth to New South Wales and China . Gutenberg.net.au. https://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks20/2000051h.html#jan88 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (2018). St. Catherine of Siena | Biography & Patron Saint of. In Encyclopædia Britannica . https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Catherine-of-Siena University of California Davis. (2012). Catherine of Siena: Letter to Pope Gregory . Medieval.ucdavis.edu. http://medieval.ucdavis.edu/20C/Catherine.html#:~:text=It%20will%20be %20for%20our Vanderbyl, N. (2016). Explainer: the importance of William Barak’s Ceremony . The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/explainer-the-importance-of-william-baraks-ceremony-60846 White, E. B. (1955). A quote by E.B. White . Www.goodreads.com. https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/146312-i-have-yet-to-see-a-piece-of-writing-political 9

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