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Date
Dec 6, 2023
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Uploaded by DeaconWildcat3311
Sydney Tolleson
Grand Canyon University
PCN-153 Co-Occurring Disorders and HIV/AIDS
Dr. Salvucci
September 17, 2023
1
Introduction
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus, or HIV, is a retrovirus that is known to cause
acquired immune deficiency syndrome or AIDS in humans. HIV attacks the body’s cells that
fight off infections, making the person who is infected extremely vulnerable to other infections
and diseases (
What Are HIV and AIDS?
, n.d.). If it is left untreated, HIV is known to cause
AIDS, a disease in which there is a significant loss in the body’s natural cellular immunity, which
greatly lowers the resistance to all infections and cancers, and inevitably leads to death (
What
Are HIV and AIDS?
, n.d.). Since the discovery of HIV/AIDS in the late 1900s, there has been a
tremendous amount of research done to learn about and help fight this disease. There have been
many false theories and myths that have arisen about where it came from as well as who is at risk
for infection. However, recent studies provide scientific proof of the evolution of HIV/AIDS,
which has helped researchers find a way to slow the progression of the disease. Due to the
negative stigma associated with HIV/AIDS, many people have shied away from talking about it,
much less getting tested or receiving treatment. This can cause major depression, and other
mental health concerns, including substance abuse. Since the discovery of HIV/AIDS, many
false theories and myths have surrounded the idea of the disease, making it difficult to know the
facts, which negatively impacts those who are diagnosed, making it imperative that counselors
and other health care professionals have a solid understanding of the disease to best help the
clients.
Proven Theory
Much confusion has surrounded the origin of HIV/AIDS since the first recognized case in
1981, in which HIV-1 was found to be the causing agent of AIDS (Sharp & Hahn, 2011). Since
then, researchers have spent countless resources and time trying to distinguish where this virus
2
came from, and how it suddenly appeared. The first clue was found in 1986 when a similar but
distinct virus, which later came to be known as HIV-2, was found to cause AIDS in patients in
Western Africa, (Sharp & Hahn, 2011). Although HIV-1 and HIV-2 were not closely related, they
were both found to be closely related to is simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), which is a
virus found in chimpanzees and other native African species of monkeys (Sharp & Hahn, 2011).
It was also later confirmed that SIV was not a natural pathogen of the original chimpanzees and
monkeys it was first found it, but rather it had been generated invertedly in US primate centers
be inoculating various species of monkeys with blood and other tissues from the Sooty
Mangabey monkeys that are native to Africa (Sharp & Hahn, 2011). After many years of
studying the virus, the most widely accepted theory about where it came from, and how it
infected humans is that it was naturally found in chimpanzees that were hunted for meat, and that
the hunters must have come in contact with the blood of an infected primate (Sharp & Hahn,
2011).
Discredited Theories
The lack of understanding of the epidemic of HIV/AIDS caused a lot of worry and
distress among the public. One of the more controversial theories about how HIV/AIDS came
about was that government scientists genetically modified the virus and introduced it into the
population via hepatitis B vaccines as experiments performed on gay and bisexual men,
especially African Americans, in major cities between 1978-1981 (
Study: Many Blacks Cite
AIDS Conspiracy (WashingtonPost.com)
, n.d.). This theory was very widely accepted by the gay
and black populations, claiming that the government created this disease to control and even
wipe out their communities (Heller, 2015). Due to the mistrust in the government and public
health by African Americans, half of the African Americans who were surveyed believed that
3
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HIV was man-made, and one quarter believed that it was produced by the government (Heller,
2015). While there are still many who believe this theory, it was largely discredited when other
ethnicities and sexual orientations were also largely affected by HIV, and by research showing
that people with HIV greatly benefit from the Hepatitis B vaccine (Mohareb & Kim, 2021).
Another theory that circulated among the public during the HIV/AIDS epidemic also revolved
around a vaccine, the oral polio vaccine theory. This theory suggested that chimpanzees from a
certain region were the source of SIV, and that the tissues from these chimpanzees were used in
preparation of the oral polio vaccine, thus contaminating those who were vaccinated (Worobey
et. al., 2004). This theory was suggested in 1999 by Edward Hooper, who proposed that early
batches of the OPV were grown in cultures of infected chimpanzee kidney cells (Worobey et. al.,
2004). The OPV theory was quickly discredited when a vial of the batch most implicated by
Hooper was tested and they found no sequences of HIV/SIV or cellular components of
chimpanzees (Worobey et.al., 2004). Five samples of OPV from the Belgium Congo between
1958 and 1960 were also analyzed and found no chimpanzee DNA (Worobey et.al., 2004). This
theory was ultimately discredited due to other molecular biology and phylogenetic tests revealed
that the circulating virus in humans was distinct from all strains of HIV-1, providing direct
evidence that these chimpanzees were not the source of the human AIDS pandemic (Worobey
et.al., 2004). There are many more theories surrounding the HIV/AIDS epidemic, most of which
stem from distrust in the government and other public health organizations by the populations
that have been most affected by the virus.
Myths
The negative stigma and lack of knowledge and understanding of HIV/AIDS has led to
many myths surrounding the disease, spreading unnecessary worry and judgement. One of the
4
most common myths that is still believed by many, is that HIV/AIDS can be spread by sharing
utensils or drinks with someone who is infected (
Ways HIV Is Not Transmitted | HIV
Transmission | HIV Basics | HIV/AIDS | CDC
, n.d.). Studies have confirmed that the virus cannot
live outside of the human body long enough to be transmitted through the air, by touch, saliva,
sweat, or tears (
Ways HIV Can Be Transmitted | HIV Transmission | HIV Basics | HIV/AIDS |
CDC
, n.d.). Moss (2013) explains that HIV/AIDS can only be transmitted through blood, semen,
vaginal fluids, and other delicate mucus membranes such as breast milk. Another common myth
is that HIV/AIDS only affects certain sexual orientations, such as gay and bisexual men, which is
often believed since the virus was first recognized in gay man in the early 1980s. While certain
populations are at a higher risk, HIV/AIDS can affect anyone regardless of race, ethnicity,
gender, or sexual orientation (
HIV by Group | HIV | CDC
, n.d.). In recent years there have been
many advancements in treatment, but with that more myths have also arisen. A more recent myth
that has emerged is that the new medications that are used to treat HIV and lower the viral load,
actually cure the disease HIV (
Newly Diagnosed With HIV | Living With HIV | HIV Basics |
HIV/AIDS | CDC
, n.d.). The new antiretroviral therapies (ART) can make the viral load
undetectable, which is the best way for an infected person to stay healthy and not transmit the
disease, no longer making it a death sentence but rather a lifelong manageable chronic disease
(Moss, 2013). The latest commercials and positive hype about these medications without actual
knowledge of the disease is a big reason for this myth. When HIV/AIDS was first discovered, the
government and other public health officials were responsible for misinformation and misleading
the public for many years (Schechter, 1993). These and many more myths about HIV/AIDS are
still believed today due to the lack of awareness, understanding and willingness to learn the facts
about HIV/AIDS.
5
Statistics
Recent studies from the CDC (2023) show that in the United States alone in 2021, over
36,000 people received a new HIV diagnosis. Georgia is no exception, with over 2,500 new
infections in 2019 of people 13 years of age and older (Georgia Department of Public Health,
2023). Of the newly infected cases, 79% were males, 19% females, and 2% were transgenders
(Georgia Department of Public Health, 2023). Of the females, 90% was attributed to
heterosexual contact, while 83% of the reported male cases were attributed to male-to-male
sexual contact, however in 2021 more heterosexual males reported new cases than IV drug users
and IV drug users with male-to-male sexual contact, which indicates that anal sex (male-to-male
or male-to-female) is a more likely way to transmit HIV than IV drug use (Georgia Department
of Public Health, 2023). Among the 18 Public Health Districts in Georgia, Fulton and DeKalb
had the highest numbers and rates of persons diagnosed with and living with HIV infection most
likely due to the higher populations of these districts, as well as the fact that Atlanta is included
in these areas, where homosexuality is more widely accepted and encouraged. It is also noted
that 71% of the new cases were among the African American population. As awareness and truth
is presented about HIV/AIDS, it would be reasonable to assume that the number of infections
would decrease, however that is not the case. As a result of effective treatment and false
information about these treatments, the number of people in Georgia living with HIV has steadily
increased (Georgia Department of Public Health, 2023). This indicates the lack of knowledge
and understanding that people have about HIV/AIDS, including the people who are involved in
high-risk populations and relationships. The statistical data from Georgia proves that HIV/AIDS
can affect any person, no matter the ethnicity, race, gender, or sexual orientation, and that the
disease can be spread easily if people are not aware of the risks of behaviors that they partake in.
6
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Counseling
Co-occurring psychiatric and substance-related disorders are being seen more often than
ever before. When a client presents with symptoms of either one or the other, or both disorders,
the correct diagnosis and treatment plan is vital to their recovery. Counselors have many tools
available today to be able to distinguish between disorders, as well as to treat one or both at the
same time with different types of therapies, medications, and other resources depending on the
severity of the disorder. The impact of treatment on a client can be the difference between life
and death in some cases, and a misdiagnosis could do more harm than good. It is also important
when a client is diagnosed with co-occurring disorders, that both of the disorders be treated at the
same time with a fully integrated treatment plan, to ensure that the whole client is being treated,
to avoid relapse.
References
About HIV/AIDS | HIV Basics | HIV/AIDS | CDC
. (n.d.).
7
https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/whatishiv.html
CDC works 24/7
. (2023, September 13). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
https://www.cdc.gov/
Georgia Department of Public Health. (2023). Georgia HIV surveillance data.
Georgia
Department of Public Health
.
https://dph.georgia.gov/epidemiology/georgias-hivaids-
epidemiology-section/georgia-hiv-surveillance-data
Heller, J. (2015). Rumors and Realities: Making sense of HIV/AIDS conspiracy narratives and
contemporary legends.
American Journal of Public Health
,
105
(1), e43–e50.
https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2014.302284
HIV by Group | HIV | CDC
. (n.d.).
https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/index.html
Mohareb, A. M., & Kim, A. Y. (2021). Hepatitis B vaccination in people living with HIV—If at
first you don’t succeed, try again.
JAMA Network Open
,
4
(8), e2121281.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.21281
Moss, J. A. (2013). HIV/AIDS Review.
Radiologic Technology
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(3), 247–267.
Newly Diagnosed with HIV | Living With HIV | HIV Basics | HIV/AIDS | CDC
. (n.d.).
https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/livingwithhiv/newly-diagnosed.html
Schechter M. T. (1993). AIDS: the fictions, the facts.
CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association
journal = journal de l’Association medicale Canadienne
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Sharp, P. M., & Hahn, B. H. (2011). Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic.
Cold Spring
Harbor Perspectives in Medicine
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(1), a006841.
https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a006841
Study: Many Blacks cite AIDS conspiracy (WashingtonPost.com)
. (n.d.-b).
https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A33695-2005Jan24.html
8
The important role of substance use disorder treatment providers in ending the HCV and HIV
epidemics
. (n.d.). HIV.gov.
https://www.hiv.gov/blog/important-role-substance-use-
disorder-treatment-providers-ending-hcv-and-hiv-epidemics/
Ways HIV can be transmitted | HIV transmission | HIV Basics | HIV/AIDS | CDC
. (n.d.).
https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/hiv-transmission/ways-people-get-hiv.html
Ways HIV is Not Transmitted | HIV Transmission | HIV Basics | HIV/AIDS | CDC
. (n.d.-b).
https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/hiv-transmission/not-transmitted.html
What are HIV and AIDS?
(n.d.). HIV.gov. https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/overview/about-hiv-
and-aids/what-are-hiv-and-aids/
Worobey, M., Santiago, M. L., Keele, B. F., Ndjango, J. B. N., Joy, J. B., Labama, B. L., Dhed’a,
B. D., Rambaut, A., Sharp, P. M., Shaw, G. M., & Hahn, B. H. (2004). Contaminated
polio vaccine theory refuted.
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9
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