Bilingual Supplemental Test Review

● Two-way programs serve two audiences: the ELL group and the native English learner group. ● There are also programs that designate the time of L1 and L2 to be used: ○ 50/50 dual language, each language gets used 50% of the time. ○ 90/10 dual language, the first language is used 90% of the time throughout elementary years. ■ In most of these, L1 language decreases until the program reaches 50/50 by the last year of the bilingual program offered. ● Some schools end bilingual education at different ages. ○ Late exit bilingualism: exiting late in the elementary years (5th-6th grade) ○ Early exit bilingualism : exit the program by the third grade, moving to mostly English instruction. ■ Early exit bilingual programs deliver the majority of content instruction in English while using the students' native language to introduce and prepare students for instruction. ■ The goal is to incorporate ELL students into mainstream education within 2-3 years. ■ Focus on using the students' native language to help with early reading instruction but to only use the students' native language for the first 2-3 years. Applying the Types of Bilingual Programs ● In dual language programs , teachers may implement a design that has the language of instruction divided by subject area. ○ Fidelity to the program calls for the teacher to use only the designated language of instruction for the specified content area. ● The purpose of dual language education is to produce bilingual, biliterate, and bicultural students. ● In dual language, students are using both L1 and L2, often on a trial and error basis to apply their learning. ○ Students find rules in the language and test the rules by applying them. ● The dual language curriculum is designed so students test what they know in their L1 and apply it to L2. ● The consistent use of the two languages for instruction is the other variable plus the focus on becoming literate in both languages. ● When the instruction is given in English, the teacher must have materials that scaffold the learning for the students so that the language is comprehensible to the students. ● By having state adopted and supplemental materials in two languages, bilingual teachers can collaboratively plan with their grade level teams for units of instruction. ● Dual language education : designed for students from two home language groups to learn in bilingual pairs side by side and use one of the other language for learning content. Vocabulary:

○ Teachers must become very familiar with these systems, especially the standards, because this will impact their instruction. ● Since students do not take a writing STAAR test every year, writing samples are collected as part of the Texas English Language Assessment System. ● For program evaluation purposes, the TELPAS scores are reviewed so that students do not plateau in their learning of English. ○ If a student stays at the same level for more than two years, there is reason for concern and the student's conditions and learning behaviors need to be scrutinized to find the reason for the lack of growth in language acquisition. Learning Styles ● There are (3) main ways that students learn, also known as learning styles . 1. Auditory : learn by hearing a. Instructional examples: read alouds, verbal instructions, discussions b. Hearing the word spelled aloud c. Learn best by music and rhythm 2. Visual : learn by seeing a. Instructional examples: charts, graphs, graphic organizers, visual aids b. Seeing the word written 3. Tactile/Kinesthetic : learn by touch or movement a. Instructional examples: hands-on activities, incorporated body movement (such as relating hand gestures to help students remember certain concepts), opportunities to move while working b. Role playing c. Using materials, such as magnetic letters, play-doh, or shaving cream to build or trace the word, letter-by-letter Teaching Diverse Students

Three Domains: Linguistic, Academic, and Affective ● Chapter 89BB of the Commissioner's Rules states that ESL and Bilingual programs are supposed to respond to (3) domains 1. Linguistic domain: language skills a. Much attention is paid to this domain with the annual measurable objectives to grow one proficiency level each year or to reach full proficiency. 2. Academic (cognitive) domain: educational skills; knowledge acquired in an educational setting. a. Accompanied by the other academic performance targets to pass mathematics, science, and social studies tests as well. 3. Affective domain: emotional skills a. Not measured the same way but may be at the root of school success or failure. b. Appropriate reaction to situations in the classroom; like calmly asking for help when a student does not understand. ● By using culturally relevant materials, the teacher is tapping into the children’s knowledge and comfort zones. ○ If children don’t connect with the teacher and the learning environment, then the concepts may not be grasped. ● Becoming bilingual and bicultural hinges on learning how to function in two worlds and with two languages. ○ Teachers who build on the first language/cultural knowledge and add the second language/cultural knowledge are creating the ideal learning environment. ● The best way to address the needs of ELL students is to implement a standards-based program that helps make content instruction comprehensible. ● General education teachers who are bilingual are required to teach all of these subjects. ○ The term "bilingual" refers to teaching in two languages. ○ Bilingual educators are advocates who explain why they use both languages for instruction. Instruction and Assessment Adaptations for Diversity: ELLs ● English language learners should not receive different content, they should receive linguistically supported content. ○ Teachers should address the same instructional goals and objectives as any student in the class. ● Teachers should deliver comprehensive input to their ELLs. ○ Information can be understood despite language barriers. ● Ways to support ELLs during classroom instruction through scaffolding and comprehensible input: ○ Provide visuals

● Some commonly accepted accommodations include: ○ Extended time ○ Bilingual glossaries/dictionaries ○ Directions read in English ○ Directions read in the student’s native language ● Directions should be clear and simple and content should not have any cultural bias. ○ The test creator should also use simple grammar and sentence structures ● Test formats should be familiar to students based on their classroom experience. ● The goal of a test accommodation for ELLs should be to decrease the impact of the language of the test in order to allow students to focus on the test content. ● When choosing accommodations, ESL teachers should keep the following in mind: ○ Accommodations should not affect what is being measured ○ Accommodations should be consistent and approved by higher testing authorities when appropriate ○ Accommodations used on tests should also be used in instruction ○ Records should be kept of the accommodations used for accurate interpretation of test scores ESL Proficiency Levels ● Beginning ELLs ○ Little or no ability to understand spoken English used in academic and social settings ■ Struggle to understand simple conversations and produce sentences ■ Speaking using simple words and short phrases using HFW ■ Read in short chunks accompanied by visual cues ■ Frequently remain silent watching others for cues ■ Can be difficult to understand ○ How to help these students: ■ Allow students plenty of think time to absorb information ■ Slow down speech and use short sentences ■ Restate messages in the same way ■ Use visuals and gesturing ■ Provide comprehensible input ○ Students need substantial support at this level. ● Intermediate ELLs ○ Have the ability to understand, with language support, grade-appropriate spoken English used in academic and social settings ■ Understand and participate in simple conversations on familiar topics ● Require support on unfamiliar topics ■ Use simple sentence structures and tenses ■ Identify and distinguish key words and phrases necessary to understand general meaning during social and instructional interactions ■ Explain ideas briefly and simply in writing ○ How to help these students:

■ Activities to categorize words within a theme or rule can help students learn faster and apply this skill to new ideas in language. ● Behaviorist theories present stimulus-response pairings in which one act leads directly to another. ○ “Drill and kill” ○ Many students are not able to produce language so readily. ○ They can memorize words, but in order to provide answers with correct content they may need more time for processing, to place the right words in the right order, etc ● Cognitive theories allow for the mind to work through steps to get to the response. ○ “Think time” is intentionally part of instruction. Adapting for Diversity in the Bilingual Classroom ● It is crucial to remember that the differentiation of instruction by no means indicates that there is a different standard to be met. ○ The content to be learned is the same for the ELLs as for the general education students. ■ Students may require additional word study or more writing practice to solidify the concepts and the corresponding academic vocabulary, but the standards remain the same. ● Teaches who involve their students in project-based learning expect the students to work preferably in groups to promote language development in order to come up with solutions to a real-life situation. ○ Students are engaged in investigative activities and in making decisions. ○ Participating in these activities requires communication and with more use of the speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills, refinement follows. Reciprocal Teaching ● Reciprocal teaching takes place as a dialog between teachers and students regarding segments of text. ○ The purpose of this kind of teaching is to bring meaning to the text as part of a group effort. ○ Has (4) parts: 1. Summarizing : provides the opportunity to identify and integrate the most important information in the text. 2. Question generating a. In order to generate questions, students must identify information that is significant enough to be worthy of a question. i. They formulate the question and try it out on themselves before asking it of their peers. 3. Clarifying a. Students understand how to be aware of these comprehension blocks and what to do to capture the meaning (e.g., ask, reread) 4. Predicting

5. Semantics : literal and connotation meaning of words and phrases; the study of word or symbol meaning a. Finding the meaning of words from context clues b. Synonyms and antonyms are a part of semantics, or the study of word meanings in a language. c. Meanings of words or phrases 6. Pragmatics : social language skills, language in use a. It incorporates an understanding of all of the other levels of language. b. Includes what we say and how we say it, including intonation. c. Considered non-verbal communication and appropriateness of style based on the social situation. ● A language function is a specific purpose for using language. ○ Speakers must consider WHY they are using language. ○ We use language to communicate for various reasons, including to inform, persuade, or entertain. Registers of Language ● The way we speak often carries a fair amount of weight. ● A language register is the degree of formality with which one speaks. ○ Language registers are different ways of communicating with people, depending on the situation, ○ A language register is the adaptation of one's speech to fit certain social situations. ○ All degrees are used and must be learned. ■ People use a frozen register when reciting something that never changes. ● Pledge of allegiance ■ People speak in a formal register in academic and professional situations. ● In job interviews, people use the standard convention of their language when speaking. ■ People speak in an informal register in social and family situations. ● Teachers need to keep these factors in mind as they select materials that will help the students grow in the capacity to understand their second language across registers. ○ A story with dialogue that integrates colloquial language is a helpful tool for informal language exposure. ○ Expository text provides a great example of formal language, including sequence words and other transition words. ● Keep the situation in mind when helping students understand the different registers and when to use them. ○ When a student is writing, it is important to identify the purpose and audience. For example, is the letter written to a principal or a grandmother?

PLDs: Speaking ● Verbally communicating for a variety of purposes in both a formal and informal register. ● To quickly determine a student's English level based on speaking, remember: ○ Beginning : ■ Uses single words, short memorized phrases, or incomprehensible speech ■ Limited HFW or recently practiced material ■ Errors may hinder overall communication ○ Intermediate : ■ Communicates a simple message with basic vocabulary ■ Limited tenses ■ Speak using mostly simple sentence structures ○ Advanced : ■ Uses a variety of tenses (present, past, future) ■ Some abstract vocabulary. ○ High Advanced : ■ Speaks as clear and detailed as a native speaker

PLDS: Reading

● It is not until students reach an Advanced level that they start to independently construct the meaning of grade-appropriate text. PLDS: Writing Stages of SLA ● Second language acquisition typically falls into (5) predictable stages:

1. Pre-Production/Silent Period a. The learner takes in a new language, but doesn't speak it. b. Responds by pointing, gesturing, nodding, or drawing c. Meaningful prompts: i. “Show me….” ii. “Circle the…” iii. “Where is…?” iv. “Who has…?” d. Understand up to 500 words, but do not speak them 2. Early Production a. Learner produces limited words and simple sentences b. 1-2 word phrases are common c. Emphasis is still on listening and absorbing language d. Meaningful prompts: i. Yes/No questions ii. Either/Or question e. About 1,000 words are known 3. Speech Emergence a. Learner speaks in simple sentences b. Reliance on context clues and familiar topics c. Begins understanding basic written information accompanied by concrete objects and based on prior experiences d. Grammar and pronunciation errors are common e. Vocabulary is increasing and errors are decreasing, especially when speaking about familiar topics. f. The student has good comprehension skills but still makes grammatical and pronunciation errors. g. Meaningful prompts: i. “Why…?” ii. “How..?” iii. “Explain… “ h. About 3,000 words are known 4. Intermediate Fluency a. Learner speaks in complex sentences b. Expression of thoughts and feelings c. Learner is likely to start thinking in their second language d. Accuracy in grammar and pronunciation is increased e. Meaningful prompts: i. “Why do you think…?” ii. “What would happen if…?” f. About 6,000 words are known 5. Advanced Fluency a. Learner accurately produces varied grammatical structures and vocabulary b. Speaks comparably to native-speaking peers

c. Meaningful prompts: i. “Retell...:” ii. “Decide if…” d. Focus on academic and content area words ● The critical period hypothesis states that there is a period from early childhood to adolescence in which full native competence is possible when acquiring a language. ○ Children learn languages better and more easily than adults. ○ Language acquisition is more difficult after childhood because the human brain's capacity to learn a language diminishes by adulthood. Interrelatedness of L1 and L2 ● Interrelatedness : beneficial connections between two languages ○ High L1 cognitive development leads to better L2 acquisition, especially L2 CALP ○ Skills from L1 transfer to L2 ○ Any skills that students know from L1 in reading, writing, mathematics, and other subjects will serve them well in second language acquisition. ● Interferences : negative impacts of L1 on L2 ○ Information that a student uses from his first language that does not exist in the second language is an example of interference. ○ Biggest influences from L1 to L2: 1. Word order errors/syntax a. For example, in Spanish, adjectives come after nouns in sentences, while they come before nouns in English 2. Pronunciation

● The current theories of second language learning emphasize that language and thought processes are developed in unison, utilizing whatever foundation the student brings from their first language. ○ Differences between languages need to be taught explicitly. ○ English should be taught in a meaningful context. TEKS and ELPS ● The TEKS and ELPS are designed to be used simultaneously to design instruction for English Language Learners across all subjects. ● The same high expectations need to be held for the English Language Learners ○ The rule of thumb is to add to the presentations, or amplify rather than simplify. ● Texas places a large emphasis on reading skills. ○ Reading instruction should be comprehensive. ■ ELLs must be taught phonemic awareness, phonics, decoding, and word attack skills while simultaneously being taught academic vocabulary and comprehension skills and strategies. ● The initial reading instruction for English Language Learners involves decoding unfamiliar words. ○ Next, the students must make sense of those words in context which then will accelerate their ability to make sense of what was read and allow them to learn from reading. ■ There can be explicit vocabulary instruction, but it cannot replace the process of using context to help determine the meaning of words. Factors Affecting ESL Students ● Academic background: The stronger a student’s academic background, the easier it will be for the student to acquire a new language. ● Length of time in the U.S.: More exposure to native speakers expedites student language development. ● Motivation: Learners who intrinsically want to learn are likely to achieve more than those who do not. ● Home/school/community environment: A low anxiety language learning environment increases the chance for acquisition. ● Acculturation : Research shows that second-language learners with a desire to integrate into the culture of speakers of the target language typically acquire the new language with a higher degree of proficiency. Krashen 5 Hypotheses ● Theory developed by Stephen Krashen of SLA that includes (5) hypotheses: 1. Acquisition learning hypothesis : acquisition occurs subconsciously from natural communication where the focus is on meaning 2. Natural Order Hypothesis : there is a predictive, natural order/sequence for language acquisition

a. Certain structures of a language are easier to acquire than others and as a result language structures should be taught in an order that is conducive to learning. 3. Monitor Hypothesis: device that learners use to edit their own language performance 4. Input Hypothesis: language is acquired through comprehensible input (making sense of what is communicated) a. Importance of using target language in the classroom to help students communicate effectively b. Similar to the Zone of Proximal Development 5. Affective Filter Hypothesis : needs and emotional states affect language acquisition (anxiety, attitude, self-image, motivation, classroom climate, personality) a. In order to learn, it is important to create a safe, welcoming environment in which students feel they can make mistakes and take risks. b. Similar to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Natural Approach ● Krashen and Terrell 1. Comprehension precedes production a. Language is acquired by making sense of what is communicated (comprehensible input) b. Receptive skills may grow ahead of productive skills 2. Production must be allowed to emerge in stages 3. Course syllabus must be allowed to emerge in stages 4. Activities must be planned so they lower the affective filter ● Seeks to foster natural language acquisition and therefore does not encourage explicit grammar instruction. ● Claims that language learning is a reproduction of the way humans naturally acquire their native language. ● Teachers following the Natural Approach tend to have emphasis on low-anxiety, natural context for language acquisition with a goal of maximum comprehensible input (both BICS and CALP). CALLA Approach ● The Cognitive and Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) was developed by O'Malley and Chamot. ● The CALLA Approach focuses on learning strategies that can be used to i ntegrate content and language. ○ This integration occurs through a five‐stage cycle involving preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and expansion. ○ Teachers explicitly teach learning strategies and have students apply them to instructional tasks to increase CALPS : ■ Learning strategies: ● Metacognitive: planning for learning, monitor self, evaluate how well one is achieving objectives ● Cognitive: manipulating material to be learned

○ Mentally: imagery elaborating ○ Physically: group items to be learned, take notes ● Social/Affective: interacting with another person to assist learning, asking for clarification, using affective control ● This approach assumes: ○ Mentally active learners are better learners ○ Learning strategies can be taught and transferred to new tasks ○ Academic language learning is more effective with learning strategies Nativists Theory ● Noam Chomsky’s Nativist Theory was a revolutionary idea that language is innate. ○ Language depends on an innate biological mechanism: the Language Aquisition Device (LAD) ○ Children are born with the ability to acquire language. They will make sense of the words to which they have been exposed. Social Interactionist Theory ● Social Communicative Theory / Social Interactionist Theory (Vygotsky) ○ Language in the zone of proximal development ( what the learners can do with guidance; the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help) can be learned ■ Students first imitate and memorize words and phrases while using non- verbals to help communicate ■ Once encouraged to experiment and know that it's OK to make mistakes, students will try combining words and making own phrases ○ Learning occurs within teacher-student interactions ■ Students need scaffolding (temporary supports; method of teaching that involves gradually removing aids when teaching new concepts) to grow ■ Context and world knowledge matters ○ Importance of "motherese", the way in which caregivers speak to their infants, which helps early language develop Other Language Approaches ● Multisensory approach : Information is presented in visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile modalities ● Total Response Signals (TRS) : Cues that students can use to indicate they are ready to respond to questions or ready to move on to new material ● Cognitive Code : Learners learn a grammatical structure (usually inductively) and then practice it (presentation, practice, and production). ● Suggestopedia : warm, relaxed, pleasant environment is the ideal state for learning ○ Often makes use of art and music ○ Close relationship between teacher and student ○ Lozanoz ○ Teacher introduces the material in “a playful manner.”

● Silent Way : Teacher is silent 90% of the time, encouraging natural language expression ○ Teacher shows learners a small red ball and a bigger blue ball and says 'The blue one is bigger than the red one'. The learners repeat this. The teacher then substitutes the balls to produce other models, and encourages the learners to produce their own comparisons. ● Grammar-Translation (Classical Approach) : Reading selections with rule highlighted as focus of instruction ○ Students directly translate a text into L1. ● Communicative Approach : learning a language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. ○ Teacher assigns students to a scenario to role-play ○ Practicing question forms by asking students to interview classmates ○ Reading and discussing an authentic news article Common Behaviors of ELLs ● There are several common behaviors learners exhibit when acquiring a new language. ○ Overgeneralization : application of a grammar rule in a nonapplicable situation ■ For example, a student may add 's' to make all nouns plural, even irregular ones. This could sound something like, "I put my shoes on my foots." ○ Avoidance : using simple words and grammatical structures to avoid difficult or complex ones ■ A student may say leaves instead of eucalyptus when asked what koalas eat. ○ Borrowing : incorporation of linguistic material from one language to another ■ English language learners may borrow a word or phrase from their native language as they're working toward English language proficiency. ○ Code-switching : alternating between languages ■ This often occurs when language learners feel they can explain something more clearly in one language than the other, or to adjust to the social context of the situation ○ False Cognate Confusion : assumption that a word similar in appearance also has the same meaning ■ While cognates are helpful to English language learners, false cognates can be confusing. ● Cognates : words in different languages with similar appearances, pronunciations, and meanings ○ Examples: family-familia; computer-computadora, and bicycle-bicicleta ● False Cognates: words in different languages with similar appearances and pronunciations, but different meanings ○ For example, Native Spanish speakers may be confused if they are described as delights to have in class, considering the Spanish word delito translates to crime.

○ The Spanish word "sopa" looks and sounds like the English word "soap," but its English translation is "soup." ■ Fossilization of Errors : uncorrected errors that become cemented over time, even as general language proficiency increases ● Students will need explicit instruction and multiple interactions ■ Circumlocution : using more words than necessary to describe something ● "The cup with the lid that keeps the soup hot til you eat it" may be said if the word thermos does not quickly come to mind. Additional notes from quizzes: ● The purpose of the think-aloud strategy is to model for students how skilled readers construct meaning from a text. Thinking aloud helps students to internalize what they are saying and thus, better understand. ● Difficulty in remembering names or recalling essential words from memory needed for oral or written language can be a sign of a learning impairment. ● Extrinsic motivation: motivating with external factors or rewards. ● It's important for teachers to respect the student's "silent period," and provide the student with ways to participate without communicating. ○ Beginning level of LP in speaking ● Research suggests that infants only have the potential to reproduce all of the phonemes in human languages for a limited time. Phonemes from a second language encountered after this period are difficult to learn. ● Research shows that integrating into a community that speaks the target language makes it easier for a second language learner to become fluent. ● Children are born with a natural predisposition for learning language and language rules. ○ According to language acquisition theory, children are born with a "language acquisition device," which helps their language development. ○ Language acquisition theory also states that children unconsciously learn language through normal social interaction without the need of structured vocabulary teaching or grammatical structures. ● Affective filters are emotions students experience that negatively influence their learning and performance in class. ● Affective factors are emotional factors that influence learning. ● Anyone learning a language will go through the same stages of language acquisition, regardless of the language. ● A lexical item is a word, part of a word or a sequence of words that form the basic elements of a language’s vocabulary. ● Most studies agree that the way parents innately speak to their children aids infant speech development. Literacy

Teaching Reading and Writing Skills to ELL Students Writing Skills ● Beginning-level writers have an extremely limited vocabulary and understanding of English grammatical structures. ○ Beginner writing samples will not have any semblance of organization, conventions, or the other traits of writing. ○ These students will best be able to make lists or copy existing writing, use present tense, and write well high-frequency words or sentences that have been practiced or memorized ● Intermediate writers have begun to develop enough of a grasp of English vocabulary so that their writing becomes meaningful, even if it is still limited. ○ They are able to write about topics that are familiar or concrete. They begin to use high-frequency words accurately, write simple sentences, and discuss concrete topics well. ● Teachers can help beginning and intermediate students by providing focused vocabulary instruction, concentrating on simple grammatical and organizational structures, providing sentence starters for use in academic writing, or providing instruction on one concept at a time. Reading Skills ● Beginning readers will struggle with any written English. ○ They may be successful with words or text they have practiced and memorized, such as environmental words or words that are easily represented by a picture. ○ These students are dependent on pictures to find meaning, and can only comprehend texts that are written specifically for this reading level. ● Intermediate readers understand routine academic or social texts. ○ They can read texts with everyday language, literal words, frequent academic language, or basic abstract terms. ○ Are able to go back to reread for meaning and begin to read with proper inflection in basic text structures. ● Teachers can help beginning and intermediate students by providing focused vocabulary instruction on high frequency words , providing ample opportunities to practice reading and being read to in a low stakes environment, provide visuals along with written text, and choosing text that is appropriate for the skill level. Systematically Teaching Vocabulary ● Challenges to vocabulary development include: ○ Lexical ambiguity : the presence of two or more possible meanings within a single word. ■ "I saw the door open." Is 'open' an adjective or a verb in this sentence? ○ Structural ambiguity : the presence of two or more possible meanings within a single sentence or sequence of words ■ "The chicken is ready to eat." Who is eating, us or the chicken?

○ Redundancy: the use of two or more words that say the same thing ■ "true fact" ○ Overextension : using a specific word in a general sense ■ "bee" for all insects or "socks" for all foot coverings Integration of Language Skills ● Language acquisition is best acquired through repeated personal conversations, interactions, and connections. ○ Classes should consist of activities multiple times throughout the day in which students use their new language. ● Language development integrates all the skills (listening, writing, reading, speaking). ○ Do not teach them in isolation ● The receptive skills , listening and reading , allow the student the chance to internalize information, and if he is not required to respond, he can focus on comprehension alone. ○ Require internalizing ○ In both instances of listening and reading the person is decoding someone else's information and is not engaged in creating language for someone else. ● The productive skills , writing and speaking , require the students to put together parts of words with their own thoughts. ○ Require creating ● Oral language involves both listening and speaking. ○ A student learns to speak by listening ● Written language involves both reading and writing. ● All language skills are related to each other, yet a student may be more advanced in one or more skills. Stages of Literacy Skills Development 1. Emergent stage a. Children understand that written language has meaning and gives messages. b. The students begin to recognize words in the environment or in text such as signs at McDonald's, Walmart, etc. c. These students may be able to write a few letters, especially in their names, even though some of the letters could be reversed or in upper case. d. These students need lots of practice in such activities as hearing and making rhymes; discerning beginning and ending sounds; and listening to and/or participating in chants, poems, and stories. 2. Early or beginning reader a. Early or beginning readers begin understanding that reading from the printed page needs to make sense; both from the pictures and from the print. b. Begin to decode and recognize several sight words c. The students can usually identify most letters and know the sounds of some d. Are usually able to write a few words or at least beginning sounds of words e. Should be able to re-read their own writing. 3. Early fluent/fluent readers/proficient readers

a. Recognize many words and can apply phonics and word analysis skills to figure out unfamiliar words. b. Fluent readers do a better job at reading more easily and with accuracy and expression. Literacy Knowledge Transfer ● Language transfer occurs when students transfer knowledge from L1 to L2. ● Literacy habits used to aid reading comprehension will transfer. ● Listening habits also transfer. ● Literacy-related abilities are interdependent across languages. ○ Knowledge and skills acquired in one language are potentially available in the other. Why Teach Oral Language? ● Students who have a strong grasp of the basics of oral language can more easily decode new words within a reading passage. ● Recognizing and remembering the distinct sounds of a language will help students pronounce unfamiliar words. ● The Language Experience Approach (LEA) is a teaching strategy that connects oral language to writing and reading skills. ○ The basic structure for LEA: ■ Begins with a discussion about an experience to help students remember more information and details. ■ Students write about the experience ■ The students have repeated opportunities to read their writing. Why Reading Fluency Matter ● Fluency is strongly tied to reading comprehension. ○ Improving students' fluency improves their ability to comprehend what they read. ○ Research shows that specifically targeting fluency in early grades (K-4) results in the greatest gains in reading.

Cummins’ Quadrants ● Jim Cummins’ developed the idea of BICS and CALP ● The instructional implications of BICS and CALP can be illustrated through an organizer called Cummins' Quadrants ○ Cummins' Quadrants are based on two dimensions of language: the cognitive demand and the context. Types of Assessment

● Assessment in the language arts classroom should be an ongoing part of the instructional process, and not simply an event that happens at the end of a unit of study. Assessment Before Instruction ● Some assessment occurs before instruction even begins. ○ Helpful for teachers to have an idea of both what students already know and can do and their knowledge and skill grapes before trying to teach them something new. 1. Universal screener : used to gather data on all students. a. The purpose is typically to put students into groups, such as intervention groups. 2. Diagnostic assessment (pre-assessment) : used to identify students’ specific strengths and weaknesses. a. Identify gaps in learning Informal and Formal Assessment ● Assessments can be: ○ Informal : happen throughout instruction ■ Flexible assessments that can be easily adjusted to fit the flow of the lesson. ■ A lot happens through observation ○ Formal : can happen both during and after an instruction unit. ■ Planned ahead of time and involve some type of set scoring guidelines. ● Quizzes, tests, projects or written assignments scored with some kind of scale or rubric. ● A journal or learning log Formative and Summative Assessment ● Formative : assessments for learning ○ Informs ○ Used to guide instruction ○ Help the teacher answer the question, “What do I teach next?” ○ Can identify learning gaps ○ Examples: observations, self and peer assessment ● Summative : assessments of learning ○ Sums up ○ Determine whether or not students mastered a learning objective ○ Help the teacher answer the question, “What did my students learn?” Criterion-Referenced and Norm-Referenced Assessment ● Criterion-referenced assessments : look at how students perform against a set criteria. ○ Scores on these types of tests come in the form of a %. ○ Examples: Tests administered at the end of an instructional unit and state achievement tests

■ Determining the level of books students should be reading independently ○ Determine whether or not students mastered grade-level standards ● Norm-referenced assessments : look at how student perform against the normal curve ○ Compare students to each other and rank them according to performance ○ can be used to identify which students may need additional academic support ○ Examples: SAT and IQ tests ■ Compare an individual to a group: Having students read a standard passage and then comparing each student’s results to the whole class ● Both assessments formally assess a test-taker’s knowledge in a specific area, but the purposes of each are very different. ○ A criterion-referenced assessment is an assessment used to tell if a student has learned the material ○ A norm-referenced assessment ranks a student's performance with the student's peers More Assessment Terms ● Progress monitoring : periodic assessments given to keep track of student growth toward a specific goal or objective ● Curriculum-based assessment : measures student progress using materials taken from the curriculum ● Performance-based assessment : students apply knowledge or skills to complete a process or create a product ● Portfolio : collection of student work to show growth over time ○ Students often select their own pieces and include self-reflection ○ Can be compiled along with teacher feedback, self-evaluations… ● Exit slip : short response completed and completed at the end of a lesson REA Notes ● Common underlying proficiency (CUP) : people store information in a language-free environment common to L1 and L2 ○ How the bilingual child organizes information in the brain ● The perceived social and psychological distance describes how ELs see their relationship with members in mainstream groups. ○ If they perceive themselves as socially equal, SLA becomes easy. ○ Sociocultural factors ● Spanish is a Romance language. ○ Spanish comes from Latin, the language of the Romans. ● English is a Germanic language but has influence from the Latin and Greek languages. ● Students reach a threshold level when they develop a strong literacy foundation in their native language. ● Language acquisition is used to describe the process that children follow in their attempt to decipher and use language. ○ Proces begins at birth and continues through life.

○ First LA happens subconsciously when children try to understand the language spoken around them. ○ Parents and caregivers teach language concepts indirectly through meaningful interaction in contextualized situations. ■ Parents provide corrective feedback to children indirectly through modeling. ● Students at the speech-emergence stage communicate in phrases using high semantic value. ○ Begin understanding basic written information accompanied by concrete objects based on prior experiences ● Effective methods to teach a second language should revolve around the student and his/her communication needs. ● When children overgeneralize, they are applying grammar rules. ● Language development is enhanced when students use the language for a meaningful purpose. ● English and Spanish have a large number of common derivational morphemes and root words. ○ The languages also share a large number of cognates. ● Both Spanish and English have multiple consonant blends ○ English has multiple and unique consonant blends (clusters) with s in the initial position. ● Spanish does not have the concept of vowel digraphs ○ Does not have the concept of long or short vowels ● The presence of a hiatus (two strong vowels) automatically signals a separation into two syllables. ○ Example: In the word creo , the e and the o are strong vowels creating two different syllables. ● Both LPAC (Language Proficiency Assessment Committee) and ARD (Admission Review and Dismissal) regulate admission and dismissal to the bilingual and special education programs, respectively. ● The two-way dual language program was designed to serve language minority and language majority students. ○ Children from mainstream groups can participate in the program and become bilingual. ● Lau Remedies : established the criteria for the implementation of special language programs for ELs. ● The one-way dual language program serves language minority students. ○ The two-way dual language program serves both language minority and language majority students (e.g., Spanish-speaking and native English speakers). ○ Goals of both programs are the same: to perform well academically and to maintain both languages. ● Spanish does not have vowel digraphs; while English has a large number of them. ○ Two vowels in a word represent one sound: c oo l, b oo k, f ee t

○ In Spanish, every vowel is pronounced ● Research studies suggest that literacy emerges naturally and concurrently. ● Syllables are the foundation for teaching Spanish reading ● Teachers and administrators need to identify the levels of language development of the learners to be sure their language proficiency does not interfere in the assessment of the content areas. ● The state legislation requires bilingual education from K-upper elementary ○ Dual language instruction is allowed in K-12. ● Bilingual students use their linguistic and cultural knowledge as a foundation for development in both languages. ○ Comparing L1 and L2 is a general strategy that bilingual people use consistently. ■ Identifying elements from L1 and L2 that can transfer ● Sheltered English is a program designed to teach ESL throughout instruction in the content areas. ● Children exposed to L2 before puberty develop a near native pronunciation in the second language. ○ Adults rely on their native language as the foundation for the development of L2. ■ Leads to language interference at the phonological level. ■ Adults are better at handling grammar and the abstract components of the language. ● Given the appropriate instruction, children exposed to L2 after puberty will develop similar language proficiency as children who came into contact at an earlier age. ● Children exposed to L2 after puberty master pronunciation, grammar and reading better than younger children. ● Semantics: figurative language and idioms ● Children are eager to learn the language. ○ They are concerned with delivering and obtaining information, not grammar. ○ Parents should not correct their children. ■ They should model and contextualize information so that it becomes easier to understand. ● Checklists and teacher observations are common examples of ongoing or informal assessment. ● Double negatives are unacceptable in standard English. ○ Spanish accepts double negatives. ● Inflectional morphemes (inflectional endings) occur at the end of the word. ○ Native of English ○ Do not change the syntactic or grammatical classification of the word attached. ● Examples of inflectional morphemes: ○ Third person singular, possessive and the short and long plurals ■ Third person singular: She often walk s too ■ Possessive: Mary ’s dog also runs. ■ Plural (-s, -es): She brought home two box es of food for her pet s . ● First LA and especially oral language development appear to be a result of innate mechanism, imitation, and environmental influences.

● A balanced reading program combines phonics instruction, a skill-based approach, to teach decoding skills, with features from the whole language, a meaning-based approach, to teach reading. ● Language experience approach: students’ experiences should be used as a bridge to new ideas and concepts. ● The concept of communicative competence has been defined based upon these components: ○ Sociolinguistic: switch registers (communication styles) based on the context of communication ○ Grammatical: describes the ability of the learner to apply grammar of the language. ○ Discourse: refers to the ability of the learners to present an argument in a cohesive fashion. ○ Strategic: the ability of the child to maintain the flow of communication to achieve the communicative purpose ● Sheltered English instruction is more appropriate for students who are at the intermediate or advanced proficiency level in English. ○ English is the only language of instruction ● In indirect instruction, students are guided to discover and build their knowledge. ○ Questioning techniques are used to analyze and develop an in-depth knowledge of important components in the lesson. ● Preview-review is a traditional bilingual education strategy designed to teach content using two languages. ○ The content is introduced in L1 and the technical vocabulary and the lesson is presented in L2, and L1 is then used again to review the content. ● The main purpose of semantic mapping is to identify critical features of a concept. ○ Visually represent interconnected features of a concept. ● The main contribution of Lau v. Nichols : It empowered the Office for Civil Rights (OCR) to force school districts to provide better education to linguistic minority students. ● Actual legislation that allowed the implementation of dual language programs was the Elementary and Education Act of 1994 . ○ The legislation allowed the participation of native English speakers, which resulted in the development of the two-way dual language programs. ● The implementation of quality bilingual education was challenged in which of the following court cases? ○ Rios v. Read (1978) and Castañeda v. Pickart (1981) ● The cases that promoted the signing of the Equal Education Opportunity Act (EEOA) of 1974 were which of the following? ○ Keyes v. School District 1(Denver) , and Lau v. Nichols ● Translanguaging : Bilingual students use the cumulative knowledge and skills acquired in and through both languages as a mechanism to solve problems and to cope with linguistic and academic challenges. When they encounter new concepts, they use this cumulative knowledge as a framework to understand new information.

● Metacognitive strategies describe ways to conceptualize how learning occurs. These strategies divide into two classifications: organization and planning for learning, and self- monitoring and self-evaluating. ○ Example: Marisela develops a study guide to be sure that she synthesizes the content of a class and checks what she knows about that content. ● Cognitive strategies describe techniques to improve understanding, increase retention of information, and apply new information. ○ Example: Joe is literate in his native language and has a strong background in math, social studies, and science. When he came to the United States, he used the knowledge that he acquired in his native language as a foundation for learning new concepts in English. ■ Transfer of information from L1 to L2 ● A key strategy to help students gather information from textbooks is to teach the format used in textbooks and discuss how each part can increase comprehension. ● The developmental bilingual education (DBE) program is an enriching, additive, late-exit program of five to six years and is designed to promote bilingualism.