History Exam 1 Ch 1-8 Review
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CHAPTER 1 1.
What played a major part in facilitating migration of humans into North America? Environmental conditions played a major part in facilitating migration of humans into North America. The glaciers connected the land and created a land bridge called Beringia so they were able to move. 2.
What was the connection between the Agricultural Revolution and humans’ ability to control their food supply? They had reliable food sources which caused the food supply to increase and the population to expand. 3.
What did Christopher Columbus and Portuguese explorers have in common? They both wanted to establish direct trading contacts with central/eastern Asia in order to get past the dominating middle east traders. 4.
What caused slave traders to accept trade regulations imposed on them by Africans? Slave traders accepted trade regulations because they had no other choice but to pay toll and fees restricting their business. 5.
Of items and ideas introduced by Europeans, what did Native Americans find most useful? The Native Americans found metal items such as guns and knives most useful. 6.
What did the Portuguese Court propose to do instead of accepting Columbus’s plan to find a route to Cathay? The Portuguese chose to voyage around the continent of Africa instead of accepting Columbus' plan to find a route to Cathay. 7.
Why did Scandinavians abandon their outposts in the New World?
This was due to the hostility of Native Americans, borderlines of communication, climatic cooling, and political upheavals in Scandinavia. 8.
How did Aztec spiritual beliefs influence Aztec’s initial reaction to the Spanish? the Aztecs thought they were representatives of the serpent gods so they didn't fight back. 9.
What impact did Historia de las Indias
by Las Casas have on readers in Spain? It caused a heated debate in Spain and started changing Spanish-Indian relations in a positive way. 10.
In terms of successful converting Native Americans to Christianity, how did the French compare to the English? They converted more Natives but this could be led back to how they saw them as necessary partners which the English did not. 11.
What was the greatest obstacle for the French in creating a Canadian empire? There was limited support from France, Canada was cold and inhospitable, there were not enough women to create families, and all exports and imports had to go through Quebec. 12.
What caused King Henry VIII to break with the Catholic Church? People were no longer willing to pay for a priest that was so far away.
13.
What was England’s relationship with Spain during the reign of Elizabeth I? She was protestant and anti-Catholic so Spain didn't like her. 14.
Why was the Elizabethan settlement in Roanoke (in North America) a failure? Poor planning, preparation for a war with Spain, and hostilities with Native Americans caused it to be a failure. CHAPTER 2 15.
What was the role that joint-stock companies played in facilitating early seventeenth century English settlement? the joint-stock company was a business organization in which many people could invest without the fear of bankruptcy. 16.
What influenced settlers to choose the site on which Jamestown was built? they thought it would be a promising location because it would be a good place to build a fort but were wrong because it was a disease-ridden death trap. 17.
Why were Jamestown settlers attracted to growing tobacco? Tobacco was easy to grow and very profitable to export to Europe. 18.
What did most indentured servants expect to happen to them after their contract was up? They were supposed to be provided with freedom, promised land, tools, and clothes according to "the custom of the country" 19.
Why were most indentured servants young males? They were able to do harder work and could live longer. The sex ratio was six to one, leaving the men with no mates. 20.
What role did lifespan play in the development of the Chesapeake colonies? Most Virginians did not live long enough to worry about marriage. Contagious diseases, water contamination, and natives were the major causes of death. 21.
Why were Maryland settlers encouraged to keep their Catholicism private? So, they wouldn't face persecution and to not scare off protestants who were not fans of Catholics. 22.
By 1700, how did lives for free blacks in Virginia change? They lost all freedom and rights they had to White planters. 23.
Did Puritans tolerate religious differences? they did not tolerate religious differences. They moved to the New World to preserve their freedom of worship. 24.
Why did Boston Puritans banish Roger Williams from the colony? He preached separatism and he thought they had no business in punishing people for their religious beliefs. They did not want to compromise with him so they banished him. 25.
What made William Penn’s Frame of Government unique?
He blended traditional government with personal liberty. This guaranteed liberty conscience, freedom from persecution, no taxation without representation, and due process of law. 26.
What prompted planters in Barbados to resettle in the Carolinas? They were overpopulated and there was not enough land to give out to maintain wealth and social status. 27.
What was the motivation for the British government to give James Oglethorpe a charter to develop the colony of Georgia? He believed he could fight the Spanish with his colony. CHAPTER 3 28.
What explains New Englander settlers’ success at preserving English customs? People who traveled within families preserved English customs better. They also believed that God ordained the family for human benefit. 29.
What was most responsible for the population rise in New England in the seventeenth century? Survival was most responsible for the population rise. People who would have died in contemporary Europe, survived longer in England. 30.
What was most responsible for the slow population increase in Virginia and Maryland in the seventeenth century? They were all indentured servants and there were more men than women. 31.
What was the socioeconomic background of most immigrants to the Chesapeake? Most people were indentured servants and they were poor to middling farmers. 32.
How did southern planters justify African slavery? They associated blacks with heathen religion (supported the devil), barbarous behavior (acted like animals), and sexual promiscuity. Farmers said that the bible condones slavery and said that if the slaves converted to Christianity, they would benefit from their loss of freedom. 33.
Why did Virginia lawmakers tolerate the mixed status of Africans in the early seventeenth century? The black population was small and had a population of 1,500 compared to the 26,000 whites that lived in the colony. 34.
Under what circumstances (what kind of plantation/farm situation) were African slaves most likely to be able to preserve elements of their heritage? They were able to preserve elements in the South, where there were more blacks. It made it easier to develop creole languages (English and African). 35.
What does the term “mercantilism” mean? Mercantilism assumed that the supply of wealth was fixed. A nation needed to export more goods than import in order to increase its wealth. 36.
What did the Navigation Acts regulate?
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It regulated colonial commerce to favor England's accumulation of wealth and attempted to eliminate the Dutch. 37.
What was the difference between the Lords of Trade and the Board of Trade? The Board of Trade was expected to monitor colonial affairs and give government officials the best advice on commercial and other problems. The Lords of Trade were ineffective. 38.
What was the role of the vice-admiralty courts during the late 17
th
-early 18
th
century? vice-admiralty courts resolved maritime questions quickly enough to send ships to sea. They did not require judges or cross-examination. 39.
How did William Berkeley, royal governor of Virginia, react to Indian attacks on outlying plantations? Berkeley created a line of expensive, ineffective, and defensive forts. This led people to think that he was protecting his fur monopoly. 40.
What was the outcome, in terms of population loss, of King Philip’s War (Metacomet’s War) of 1675? More than 1,000 Indians and New Englander's died in this war. 41.
What reputation did Edmund Andros have among colonists in New England? He had a bad reputation because no one liked him since he declared normal town meeting illegal, collected taxes the people never approved, and packed the courts with people who detested the local population. 42.
How did Puritans view witches in their society? They thought witches were bad and evil and they killed 15 alleged witches. 43.
Why did African population in North America outpace the African population in the Caribbean? Death rates were lower and North America bought less slaves. CHAPTER 4 44.
Why were Scots-Irish immigrants so welcomed in Pennsylvania? They thought it would form an ideal barrier between the Indians and coastal communities. 45.
What was the motivation for German Lutherans to immigrate to British North America? At first, they traveled to find religion toleration. By the mid-century, they traveled to improve their material lives. 46.
How did Indians in the backcountry hold their own against white settlers? They came up with the concept of a middle ground which is an area where two distinct cultures meet and merge and they fought back against the whites. 47.
In what geographic region did the most intense and creative contact between Indians and white settlers take place? The most intense and creative contact was between the Appalachian Mountains and Mississippi river.
48.
What kept California from figuring prominently in Spain’s plans for its North American empire? They saw no natural resources worth mentioning and the area was difficult to reach. 49.
What changes came about for Native peoples in the southwestern area known as the Spanish borderlands? They became villages to servitude and they were consigned to the lowest social class but they resisted conversion. 50.
How did Benjamin Franklin represent the ideas of the Enlightenment and why was he revered by Europeans? Franklin tinkered, experimented, and reformed and he would organize groups to talk about European literature, philosophy, and science. 51.
How did trade patterns in the eighteenth century affect the shape of a particular American culture? Franklin tinkered, experimented, and reformed and he would organize groups to talk about European literature, philosophy, and science. 52.
What was the difference between Great Awakening preachers George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards in terms of their religious message and what kinds of people attended revivals? Jonathan Edwards accepted the traditional ways of calvinism and said that God had determined eternal faith. Whitefield was an inspiring preacher who accepted all people; rich, poor, young, old, rural, and urban. 53.
How did voting eligibility in colonial America compare to that in Britain? You had to be white, male, middle class to vote. They could not be bribed, unlike Britain. 54.
How did British imperial wars against the French change the character of colonial assemblies by the mid-18
th
century? It demanded large public expenditure which turned small, amateurish assemblies of the seventeenth into the more professional, vigilant legislatures of the eighteenth. They were committed to preserving the English common law. 55.
What European nation lost the most territory in North America as a result of the Seven Years War (aka French and Indian War)? France lost the most territory in North America as a result of the Seven Years War. 56.
What effect did the Seven Years War have on colonial military officers with regard to their belief in British invincibility? George Washington learned that the British were not invincible. 57.
Under the terms of the Treaty of 1763, what area of North America was transferred from French to British control? British got North, East, US, and Canada and New York. CHAPTER 5
58.
What was the status of racial/ethnic diversity in the American colonies on the eve of independence from Britain? - population of 2.5 million
-colonies blacks and whites
-dominated by the young. 59.
What was the central issue in the Anglo-American debate about governance of British North America? Parliamentary sovereignty, decisions suppressed any legislation passed by colonial assemblies. 60.
What was the belief held by members of Parliament about Parliament’s control of British North America? It protected rights and property from an arbitrary monarch. 61.
What role did American colonial legislative assemblies play in the mid-18
th
century colonies? the assemblies looked like American copies of Parliament. They expanded authority over taxation and expenditure. 62.
What effect did the Great Awakening have on American political ideas? it created an awareness of an obligation to conduct public and private affairs according to scripture 63.
How did Britain’s war debt after the Seven Years’ War affect Parliament’s attitude toward colonists? Parliament was reluctant to fund an army large enough to maintain peace between European settlers and Native Americans.
colonists expressed fear that the British troops might be used to curtail their rights and liberty. 64.
What roles were played by Patrick Henry and by the Sons of Liberty during the 1765 Stamp Act crisis? Henry introduced five resolutions protesting the Stamp Act on the floor of the assembly. (a.k.a Virginia Resolves)
The semisecret group put political and economic pressure on neighbors who wanted to remain neutral in the contest with Britain. 65.
Why were the Townshend Revenue Acts passed? Charles Townshend hoped to generate sufficient funds to pay the salaries of royal governors and other imperial officers, freeing them from dependence on the colonial assemblies. 66.
Why did Parliament retain the tax on tea when it repealed the Townshend Duties? Not for revenue purposes but as a reminder that Britain's rulers still subscribed to the principles of the Declaratory Act. They would not compromise the supremacy of Parliament. 67.
For what purpose, mainly, was the Continental Association formed? To halt commerce with Britain until Parliament repealed the Intolerable Acts. 68.
In Common Sense
, what did Thomas Paine argue about divine rights of kings?
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He argued American's independence from England and the creation of a democratic republic.
He believed that monarchs ruled by force not by the will of God.
The belief was monarchs could do no wrong which is not true. 69.
in 1776, how did Prime Minister Lord North and his colleagues view the outcome of a conflict with North American colonists? In 1776, Lord North and his colleagues viewed the war as a police action. they figured that a mere show of force would intimidate the colonist and essentially put them back in their place 70.
What was the greatest challenged facing the British army during the Revolutionary War? British had to transport men and supplies across the Atlantic; America was too vast to be conquered by conventional military methods; British strategists never appreciated the depth of the Americans' commitment to a political ideology. 71.
Why was December, 1776, such a bleak time for American prospects with regard to success in the war? The Continental Army lacked basic supplies such as surgical kits causing soldiers to not get the medical help they need. Men who signed up for short term enlistment were preparing to go home. 72.
Why did the French have interest in helping American colonists fight against the British? They hoped to embarrass the British. They resented the loss of the seven wars battle. 73.
How did interactions between government officials and Native Americans change from the 18
th
century to the 19
th
century? U.S. began ignoring treaty obligations to tribes they attempted to destroy Native Americans cultures, even tearing children away from families. 74.
What event marked the end of major military conflict in the Revolutionary War? Treaty of Paris of 1783 75.
Why did Loyalists who fled to England after the war feel betrayed by the mother country? They were never regarded as the equals of native-born British citizens. Although they were Americans, they still fought for Britain and won. 76.
Why did the British army focus on the southern colonies in the later years of the war? Britain was unable to make progress against the continental army in the North. The south war was brutal loyalist and patriots pitted neighbors against each other. CHAPTER 6 77.
How did revolutionaries like Samuel Adams view republicanism? Republicanism represented more than a form of government, It was a way of life, a core ideology, and an uncompromising commitment to maintain liberty, and equality, while gurading against the corruptions of power and self-interest. It was a political culture.
78.
What impact did republican zeal have on states’ voting requirements in the early post
-war period? Pennsylvania & Georgia allowed all white male taxpayers to vote.
Republican ferment also encouraged states to lower property requirements for voting. Americans that moved to the frontier received full political representation in their states legislatures. 79.
Changes in voting patterns in the early post-war period were due primarily to what phenomenon? These important changes in voting patterns were the result of western migration. 80.
How did abolitionist language change during the revolutionary/early post-war period? During the revolutionary period, abolitionist sentiment spread. Both in private in public, people began to criticize slavery in other than religious language. 81.
What contributions did African Americans make to the early antislavery movement? they kept the issue of slavery before the public through writing and petitioning, African americans undermined arguments in favor of human bondage. They reminded legislators that "private or public tyranny and slavery are alike in detestable to minds conscious of the equal dignity of human nature. 82.
What was the connection between education and “republican womanhood?” Women justified their assertiveness largely on the basis of political ideology. It was the special responsibility of women as mothers to nurture the right values in their children, and as wives to instruct their husbands in proper behavior. Uneducated women could not fulfill these expectations. Women required education that was at least comparable to what men received. 83.
Why was it important to colonists to have written constitutions and, therefore, break with English tradition? It did not protect the colonists from oppression; Americans demanded that they explicitly define the rights of the people and the power of their rulers. (Natural Rights) 84.
What core belief about centralized power was held by the writers of the Articles of Confederation? They believed that power, especially power so far removed from the people was dangerous. 85.
What were the main weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation? there was no independent executive and no veto over legislative decisions. The articles also denied congress the power of taxation, a serious oversight in time of war. the result was a government that people regarded as powerless 86.
What was the purpose of the Land Ordinance of 1785? It established an orderly process for laying out new townships and marketing public lands.-p. 87.
What was the structure of territorial government under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787? It authorized creating between three and fice territories, each to be ruled by a governor, a secretary, and three judges appointed by the congress.
88.
Why did the philosopher Montesquieu believe a republican form of government could only work in a small nation? If the people lost direct control over their representatives, they would fall prey to tyrants. Large distances allowed rulers to hide their corruption, physical separation presented aristocrats with opportunity to seize power. 89.
Why were nationalists like James Madison so concerned about Shays’s Rebellion? Shay's rebellion symbolized the breakdown of law and order that they had predicted. The unrest in Massachusetts persuaded persons who might have ignored the Philadelphia meeting to participate in drafting a new constitution. 90.
What were the most common occupations of the delegates who attended the 1787 Constitutional Convention? Lawyers, merchants and planters. 91.
How was the small state versus large state division settled at the Constitutional Convention? The convention elected a grand committee of one person from each state to resolve differences between large and small states. 92.
What regional division was addressed by the 3/5 Compromise at the Constitutional Convention? The south 93.
During the ratification era, what advantages did Federalists have over Anti-Federalists? The federalists recruited the most prominent public figures of the day. In every state convention, speakers favoring the Constitution were more polished and fully prepared than their opponents. Few journals carried Anti-federalist writings. In some states, federalists adopted questionable tactics to gain ratification. They were urban, educated and rich. 94.
On what grounds did the Anti-Federalists oppose the new Constitution? "The great officers of government would soon become above the control of the people and abuse their power" They were suspicious of political power. 95.
What was a significant contribution made by the Anti-Federalists? The bill of rights, the first ten amendments to the constitution. CHAPTER 7 96.
What was the difference between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson when it came to choosing the class of people to whom the success of the nation should be entrusted? Hamilton- If the wealthiest people could be persuaded that their economic self-interest could be advanced they would work to strengthen it, and thus bring more prosperity to the common people.
Jefferson- farmers were more responsible citizens than those who labored in factories for wages, he encouraged the nation's farmers to participate in an expanding international market. Americans could exchange raw materials
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97.
What recommendations were made in Alexander Hamilton’s Report on the Public Credit
and why did Representative James Madison oppose the report? 1. under his plan, the United States promised to fund its foreign and domestic obligations at full face value. Current holders of loan certificates, whoever they were and no matter how they had obtained them, could exchange the old certificates for new government bonds bearing a moderate rate of interest. 2. the secretary (Hamilton) urged the federal government to assume responsibility for paying the remaining state debts. The Virginia congressman agreed that the United States should honor its debts. He worried about citizens and soldiers who, because of financial hardship, had been compelled to sell their certificates at prices far below face value. 98.
What was the Constitutional basis of Hamilton’s argument for a national bank and why did President Washington sign the Bank Act into law? Hamilton wrote a masterful essay. He assured the president that Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution
—
"The Congress shall have Power ... To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers"
—
justified issuing charters to national banks. The "foregoing Powers" on which Hamilton placed so much weight were taxation, regulation of commerce, and making war. He articulated a doctrine of implied powers that the Constitution did not explicitly grant to the federal government, but which it could be interpreted to grant. 99.
What was the dominant issue during Washington’s second term of office? War in Europe thrust foreign affairs. 100.
How did Britain discriminate economically against the U. S. during the 1790s? Britian refused to grant the United States full commercial reciprocity and did not vacate military posts on American land. 101.
What position did the United States take in 1793 with regard to the war between Britain and France? neutrality seemed to be the most prudent 102.
What kept John Jay from being very successful in his negotiations with Britain in 1794? Hamilton secretly informed British officials that the United States would compromise on most issues. 103.
Why did the Spanish government accept the terms of Pinckney’s Treaty (1795)? They assumed Britain and the u.s. formed an alliance to strip Spain of its North American possessions. 104.
What started the Whiskey Rebellion? farmers protested a federal excise tax on distilled whiskey that Congress had passed in 1791, because it threatened their business. 105.
What impact did the XYZ Affair have on national politics in the U.S.? It provoked anti-french outrage in the u.s. Federalist attempted to crush republicans. A silent war started, and political atmosphere was tense. 106.
What political party became the target of the Alien and Sedition Laws?
The republicans 107.
Why did many Americans oppose the Sedition Law? They thought it undermined rights and didn't believe federal government should handle such matters they thought it should be left to the state. 108.
By avoiding war with France, how did President John Adams influence future land acquisitions of the U.S.? he created an atmosphere of mutual trust that paved the way for the purchase of the Louisiana Territory. 109.
What was the situation within the Federalist Party in the election of 1800? the federalists were divided, some stood by Hamilton others felt betrayed and tried to rig the campaign. Without a new government there would be disorder, rebellion, or revision of the Constitution. 110.
What motivated newspaper publishers in the 1790s? American public developed an appetite for political news.
-took partisan positions
-Interested in expanding sales -not reliable sources 111.
Who was Edmond-Charles Genet and why did he cause problems for the United States’ neutrality with regard to the European war?
He was French ambassador to the u.s. He tried to recruit ordinary Americans as French privateers which would break the proclamation of neutrality. CHAPTER 8 112.
What accounted for the sharp population increase as reflected in the 1810 census? The 1810 census counted 7,240,000 Americans, a jump of almost 2 million in ten years. Of this total, approximately 20 percent were black slaves, most of whom lived in the South. The large population increase was the result primarily of natural reproduction rather than immigration 113.
As a group, what distinguished Americans who migrated to the Old Northwest Territory? In general, however, a creative mixing of peoples of different backgrounds in a strange environment generated distinctive folkways. Americans who crossed the mountains were ambitious and self-confident, excited by the challenge of almost unlimited geographic mobility. 114.
What did the Shawnee leaders Tecumseh and the Prophet try to persuade other Indians to do with regard to whites? These men attempted to revitalize Native cultures. Against overwhelming odds, they briefly persuaded Native Americans living in the Indiana Territory to avoid contact with whites, resist alcohol, and, most important, hold on to their land 115.
What was the main function of cities in the early 1800s and why were they limited to the eastern part of the U.S.?
T
he cities of Jeffersonian America functioned chiefly as depots for international trade. Only about 7 percent of the nation's population lived in urban centers. Most of these people owed their livelihoods either directly or indirectly to the carrying trade. Major port cities of the early republic
—
New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, for example
—
had some of the highest population densities ever recorded in this country's history. 116.
When it came to choosing his cabinet, how did Thomas Jefferson draw on his experience as a member of Washington’s cabinet? Jefferson carefully selected the members of his cabinet. During Washington's administration, he had witnessed
—
even provoked
—
severe infighting; as president, he nominated only those who enthusiastically supported his programs. James Madison, the leading figure at the Constitutional Convention, became secretary of state. For the Treasury, Jefferson chose Albert Gallatin, a Swiss-born financier who understood the complexities of the federal budget. "If I had the universe to choose from," the president announced, "I could not change one of my associates to my better satisfaction." 117.
How did Thomas Jefferson’s republican ideology affect his ideas about the national budget? they considered harmful to republicanism. Jefferson claimed that legislators elected by the current generation did not have the right to mortgage the future of unborn Americans. Jefferson's military reductions. 118.
Why did the French leader Napoleon agree to the U.S. purchase of Louisiana? Napoleon had lost interest in an American empire. The army he sent to Haiti succumbed to tropical diseases. By the end of 1802, more than 30,000 veteran troops had died there. The diplomats from the United States knew nothing of these developments. They were surprised, therefore, in April 1803 when Talleyrand, the French foreign minister, offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory for only $15 million. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States.
119.
What was the goal of the Lewis and Clark Expedition? The expedition, also known as the Corps of Discovery Expedition, had military as well as scientific goals. 120.
How did Republicans fare in the election of 1804? But a perceptive observer might have seen signs of serious division within the Republican Party and the country. The president's heavy-handed attempts to reform the federal courts had stirred deep animosities. Republicans had begun sniping at other Republicans. Congressional debates over the slave trade revealed powerful sectional loyalties and profound disagreement. Republicans controlled congress
.
121.
Why did Federalists pass the 1801 Judiciary Act? The Federalists, realizing they would soon lose control over the executive branch, had passed the Judiciary Act of 1801. 122.
What precedent was set in the Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison
? judicial review, the Supreme Court's authority to determine the constitutionality of federal statutes. 123.
What authority was responsible for processing African slave smuggling cases after 1807 when importation of Africans for the purpose of slavery was banned? When customs officials captured a smuggler, the slaves were to be turned over to state authorities and disposed of according to local custom.
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124.
Why were abolitionists and planters alike unhappy with the 1807 law that banned importation of Africans for the purpose of slavery? Southern congressmen responded with threats and ridicule. They told their northern colleagues that no one in the South regarded slavery as evil. It was naive, therefore, to expect planters to enforce a ban on the slave trade or inform federal agents when they spotted a smuggler. The notion that these culprits deserved capital punishment seemed viciously inappropriate 125.
How did the United States respond to a new round of warfare between Britain and France in 1803? President Jefferson sought to steer clear of these European imperial rivalries while still protecting the rights of the United States as a neutral nation. And just as Washington and Adams had, Jefferson
—
and his successor as president, James Madison
—
quickly discovered the difficulty of such a policy. 126.
Why didn’t the 1807 Embargo Act have the effect it was intended to have? But peaceable coercion became a Jeffersonian nightmare. The president naively believed the American people would enthusiastically support the embargo. Instead, compliance required enforcement acts that became increasingly harsh. 127.
What was peculiar about the timing of President James Madison’s request for a declaration of war against Britain in 1812? The timing was peculiar. Over the preceding months, tensions between the two nations had relaxed. No new attacks had occurred. Indeed, at the very moment Madison called for war, the British government was suspending the Orders in Council, a conciliatory gesture that probably would have preserved the peace. 128.
How were War Hawks hopes about conquering Canada dashed in 1813? the campaigns of 1813 revealed that conquering Canada would be more difficult than the War Hawks ever imagined. Both sides recognized that whoever controlled the Great Lakes controlled the West. 129.
What was the main discussion point for the New England delegates to the Hartford Convention during the War of 1812? One proposal suggested that congressional representation be calculated on the basis of the number of white males living in a state. New England congressmen were tired of the three-fifths rule that gave southern slaveholders a disproportionately large voice in the House. The convention also wanted to limit each president to a single term, which New Englanders hoped might end Virginia's monopoly of the presidency. And finally, the delegates insisted that a two-thirds majority be necessary before Congress could declare war, pass commercial regulations, or admit new states to the Union. The moderate Federalists of New England were confident these changes would protect their region from the tyranny of southern Republicans.