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Support the following statement: Napoleon Bonaparte’s conquest efforts in Europe impacted the Brazilian and Spanish colonies in America? The chaos of the Napoleonic wars in Europe cut the direct links between Spain and its American colonies, allowing decolonization to begin. During the Peninsula War, Napoleon installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish Throne and captured King Fernando VII. Several assemblies were established after 1810 by the Criollos to recover the sovereignty and self-government based in Seven-Part Code and restore the laws of Castilian succession to rule the lands in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. This experience of self-government, along with the influence of Liberalism and the ideas of the French and American Revolutions, brought about a struggle for independence led by the Libertadores . The territories freed themselves, often with help from foreign mercenaries and privateers. United States, Europe and the British Empire were neutral, aiming to achieve political influence and trade without the Spanish monopoly. Which of the 2 was most responsible for the revolutions in Latin America; caudillos, juntas, creoles, or the casta system? Caudillo , Latin American military dictator . In the wake of the Latin American independence movement in the early 19th century, politically unstable conditions and the long experience of armed conflict led to the emergence in many of the new countries of strongmen who were often charismatic and whose hold on power depended on control over armed followers, patronage, and vigilance. Because their power was based on violence and personal relations, the legitimacy of the caudillos’ rule was always in doubt, and few could withstand the challenges of new leaders who emerged among their own followers and wealthy patrons. See also machismo ; personalismo . Which leader would be the least supportive of the Mexican constitution of 1824; Antonio López de Santa Anna, Father Miguel Hidalgo, or Benito Juárez? In a sense Santa Anna started the Texas Revolution by repealing the Mexican Constitution of 1824. In general the Constitution gave considerable rights to the individual Mexican states. It was based on "a federal government of sovereign states" (Wood). Under this constitution, American settlers in Texas were exempt from any taxes, tariffs, and government services including defense, so the Texans governed themselves (Wood). They believed the constitution guaranteed self-government (Lord 32). In 1830, the Mexican congress passed a law saying that no more Americans could immigrate to Texas and it also allowed for the garrisoning of convict troops to police the area and enforce the laws (Binkley 41). Several factors led up to this decision. First, the United States repeatedly tried to buy Texas from Mexico, and the Mexicans were starting to wonder if the settling of Texas was some sort of covert effort to take over Texas (Binkley 5). Second, according to Lamont Wood, ethnic prejudices were very much alive. All someone had to do was exploit this to start a war (Wood). Third, many of the American settlers owned and used slaves. However, slavery was outlawed in Texas, but not in the rest of Mexico where it was not practiced (Wood). Finally, the American settlers tended to settle in the areas around Gonzales, about 65 east of San Antonio ( see map ). One reason Mexico opened Texas up for immigration in the first place was to have people settle between Mexico and the fierce Comanche Indians who lived in central and

northwest Texas thus forming a buffer. However, the Texans never settled there, and Mexico's expectation went unfulfilled (Wood). Why did some Latin American revolutionaries oppose the influence of the Catholic Church? he Roman Catholic Church in Latin America has long been criticized for helping to maintain an anachronistic social system and economic underdevelopment-low levels of education, a rigid class system, disinterest in economic achievement and valorization of order and tradition. Catholics themselves admit that few creative thinkers have come from Latin America, that theologically and administratively the institution has conformed to patterns drawn chiefly from southern Europe. Yet today no institution in Latin America is changing more rapidly than the Catholic Church, and in directions that have important implications not only for defining new relationships between Christianity and the values of society, but also for the role that the Church will play in the region's development. Why is the following quote emblematic of Símon Bólivar’s efforts? “Any Spaniard who does not…work against tyranny in behalf of this just cause will be considered an enemy and punished; as a traitor to the nation, he will inevitably be shot by a firing squad.” In 1815, the fight for the independence of the Spanish colonies in Latin America was on the defensive. Simón Bolívar, a member of the Venezuelan planter class and a leading figure in the movement, was in exile. From the island of Jamaica, he issued a letter analyzing the current and future perspectives of the independence struggle. An admirer of the British parliamentary system, Bolívar argued for a balance of power in the different branches of government, although later he asserted strong executive rule while in power. In what way did the Confederation of 1867 represent a different approach for a colony to gain independence? When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867 it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy. This imperial supremacy could be exercised through several statutory measures. In the first place, the Constitution Act of 1867 provides in s.55 that the Governor General may reserve any legislation passed by the two Houses of Parliament for "the signification of Her Majesty's pleasure", which is determined according to s.57 by the (British) Queen in Council. Secondly, s.56 provides that the Governor General must forward to "one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretary's of State" in London a copy of any federal legislation that has been assented to; within two years after the receipt of this copy, the (British) Queen in Council can disallow an Act. Thirdly, four pieces of Imperial legislation constrained the Canadian legislatures. The Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865 provided that no colonial law could validly conflict with, amend or repeal Imperial legislation which explicitly or by necessary implication applied directly to that colony; the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894 as well as the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act, 1890 required reservation of Dominion legislation on those topics for approval by the British Government; and, the Colonial Stock Act of 1900 provided for the disallowance of Dominion legislation which the British government felt would harm British stockholders of Dominion trustee securities. Most importantly, however, the British Parliament could exercise the legal right of supremacy it possessed at common law to pass any legislation on any matter affecting the colonies. What role did slavery play in the revolutions in South America?

Across South America, political and social actions toward independence gave enslaved people greater motivation and opportunities to work toward their own freedom. When rhetoric turned to warfare, free and enslaved people of African descent became important sources of manpower in revolutionary armies. As had been the custom throughout the revolutionary Atlantic, individual manumission was earned through military service.

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