Hazard Exploration #3—Rocks and Geologic Time_ Attempt review
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My Courses
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ERTH031004-S23R-5103
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Week 4—Rocks, Geologic Time, Impacts & Mass Extinctions—due 27 February
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Hazard Exploration #3—Rocks and Geologic Time
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MINERAL BUILDING BLOCKS
Minerals are all around us: the graphite in your pencil, the salt on your table, the plaster on your walls, and the trace amounts of gold in your
computer. Minerals can be found in a wide variety of consumer products including paper, medicine, processed foods, cosmetics, and many
more. And of course, everything made of metal is also derived from minerals.
DEFINITION OF A MINERAL
Let’s recall the definition of a mineral. A mineral is a naturally occurring combination of specific elements arranged in a particular repeating three-
dimensional structure.
“Naturally occurring” implies that minerals are not artificially made, although many naturally occurring minerals (e.g., diamond) are also made in
laboratories. That doesn’t disqualify them from being minerals.
“Specific elements” means that most minerals have a specific chemical formula or composition. The mineral pyrite, for example, is FeS2 (two
atoms of sulphur for each atom of iron), and any significant departure from that would make it a different mineral.
Most important of all, a mineral has a specific “repeating three-dimensional structure” or “lattice,” which is the way in which the atoms are
arranged.
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THE FORMATION OF A MINERAL
In order for a mineral crystal to grow, the elements needed to make it must be present in the appropriate proportions, the physical and chemical
conditions must be favourable, and there must be sufficient time for the atoms to become arranged.
Physical and chemical conditions include factors such as temperature, pressure, presence of water, pH, and amount of oxygen available. Time is
one of the most important factors because it takes time for atoms to become ordered. If time is limited, the mineral grains will remain very small.
The presence of water enhances the mobility of ions and can lead to the formation of larger crystals over shorter time periods.
Most of the minerals that make up the rocks around us formed through the cooling of molten rock, known as magma. At the high temperatures
that exist deep within Earth, some geological materials are liquid. As magma rises up through the crust, either by volcanic eruption or by more
gradual processes, it cools and minerals crystallize. If the cooling process is rapid (minutes, hours, days, or years), the components of the minerals
will not have time to become ordered and only small crystals can form before the rock becomes solid. The resulting rock will be fine-grained (i.e.,
crystals less than 1 mm). If the cooling is slow (from decades to millions of years), the degree of ordering will be higher and relatively large crystals
will form. In some cases, the cooling will be so fast (seconds) that the texture will be glassy, which means that no crystals at all form. Volcanic
glass is not composed of minerals because the magma has cooled too rapidly for crystals to grow, although over time (millions of years) the
volcanic glass may crystallize into various silicate minerals.
Minerals can also form in several other ways:
• Precipitation from aqueous solution (i.e., from hot water flowing underground, from evaporation of a lake or inland sea, or in some cases, directly
from seawater)
Here at Mammoth Hotsprings in Yellowstone NP, travertine is precipitating from a geothermally heated aqueous solution:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travertine
• Precipitation from gases (e.g., in volcanic regions)
• Metamorphism — formation of new minerals directly from the elements within existing minerals under conditions of elevated temperature and
pressure
• Weathering — during which minerals unstable at Earth’s surface may be altered to other minerals
• Organic formation — formation of minerals within shells (primarily calcite) and teeth and bones (primarily apatite) by organisms (these organically
formed minerals are still called minerals because they can also form inorganically)
Which of the following substances qualifies as a mineral?
Select one:
a.
Ice
b.
Charcoal
c.
Shark tooth
d.
Volcanic glass (obsidian)
e.
Oyster shell
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Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals. Unlike minerals, rocks can also contain items that aren't minerals, such as shells, bones, leaves,
fossils, etc.
Rocks are classified (named) based on how the rock formed. There are three rock types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
All rocks exist at some stage in the rock cycle... and could be subject to recycling in the future, to become a different rock type!
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Igneous rocks are best described as: For the answer, read the Overview! Also there is additional info on rocks in this week’s Men of Rock video and here: Rock Types:
Igneous Rocks: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrN7jygu4cQ
Classifying igneous rocks: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zbz4e-9pjY4
Identifying Igneous Minerals and Rocks: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsWvqWzFOXk
Sedimentary Rocks: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uozyWZ6XQzM
Metamorphic Rocks: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ncr-46YX-N0
Select one:
a.
Made up of broken pieces eroded from other rocks (example: sandstone)
b.
Formed by the cooling of molten (liquid) rock.
c.
Made up of pieces of organisms shells (example: limestone)
d.
Formed deep in the interior of Earth
e.
Formed by tectonic pressure.
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Clastic sedimentary rocks are best described as:
(For the answer, read the Overview! Also there is additional info on sedimentary rocks in this week’s Men of Rock video and here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uozyWZ6XQzM
)
Select one:
a.
Made up of broken pieces eroded from other rocks (example: sandstone)
b.
Formed by the cooling of molten (liquid) rock.
c.
Made up of pieces of organisms shells (example: limestone)
d.
Formed deep in the interior of Earth
e.
Formed by tectonic pressure.
Chemical or biologic sedimentary rocks are best described as:
(For the answer, read the Overview! Also there is additional info on sedimentary rocks in this week’s Men of Rock video and here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uozyWZ6XQzM
)
Select one:
a.
Made up of broken pieces eroded from other rocks (example: sandstone)
b.
Formed by the cooling of molten (liquid) rock.
c.
Made up of pieces of organisms shells (example: limestone)
d.
Formed deep in the interior of Earth
e.
Formed by tectonic pressure.
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One of the most remarkable and famous rocks is preserved in the steep cliffs in the Marin Headlands. Many of you may visit this area, which overlooks the
Golden Gate bridge.
Geologists travel from around the world to San Francisco to see this rock, called Chert. The photo below shows it's reddish-brown color and
layered appearance. The layers look all twisted up because they were folded up by faults!
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According to these web pages:
https://www.nps.gov/goga/learn/education/chert-faq.htm
https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/b2188/b2188ch3.pdf
Chert found in cliffs of the Marin Headlands (and elsewhere!) is made of:
Select one:
a.
Crystalline milky quartz (silica) formed in veins
b.
Banded quartz (silica) formed by hot springs
c.
Microcrystalline quartz (silica) formed from radiolarian shells
d.
Cryptocrystalline quartz (silica) formed from petrified wood
e.
Your answer is correct.
Chert had to form in a very specific setting on earth. Therefore, it is key evidence that tells us about the history of all the rocks typically found
around San Francisco, known as the Franciscan Complex!
According to the web pages provided above, where did the chert form?
Select one:
a.
It formed at the bottom of the ocean where sea surface temperatures were warm. It was then transported on land by plate
movements.
b.
It formed at the bottom of the ocean
where sea surface temperatures were cold. It was then transported on land by plate movements.
c.
It formed at the bottom of the ocean at a time when sea level on the coast of California was much higher. When sea level fell, the chert
was exposed in cliffs.
d.
It formed at the bottom of the ocean at a time when sea level on the coast of California was much higher. It was then uplifted on land by
plate movements.
Lava that flows into water is quenched and cools very rapidly.
Cooling lava at this rate produces rock:
Select one:
a.
With no crystals, because it is glassy (e.g., obsidian)
b.
With visibly coarse crystals, called phaneritic (e.g., granite)
c.
With fine grained crystals, called aphanitic (e.g., rhyolite)
d.
With coarse and fine crystals, called porphyritic (e.g., andesite)
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Read ALL about Igneous Rocks in the Overview... All igneous rocks are made up of glass or crystal minerals.
Most importantly, remember that instantaneous cooling of lava does not allow time for crystals to form. The rock that results is igneous volcanic in
type and called glass.
Somewhat fast cooling allows crystals to form but only grow small. In contrast, slow cooling of lava allows crystals lots of time to grow big. The
bigger the crystals in the rock, the more slowly the lava must have cooled. The rock that results is igneous volcanic in type.
Lava cools quickly when it is not insulated deep beneath Earth’s surface. When it is deep within the earth, it is called magma. The rock that results
is igneous plutonic in type.
Cooling on the earth's surface at a moderate to fast rate produces rock that:
Select one:
a.
Is glassy, like obsidian
b.
Has very small crystals, like basalt
c.
Has large crystals, like granite
d.
Has a mixture of large and small crystals
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Refer to the video on Classifying Igneous Rocks.
Which of the following statements best describes a volcanic igneous rock?
Below is an example of an igneous volcanic rock called rhyolite. Many of the cliffs in Pinnacles and Yellowstone National Park are made of rhyolite
rock.
Select one:
a.
It cooled slowly, so it is coarse grained (has large-sized crystals).
b.
It cooled relatively quickly, so it is fine
grained (has small-sized crystals).
That's right!
Igneous rocks that are made of crystals are either volcanic or plutonic. Volcanic rocks are
formed by lava that cools either at the earth's surface or in the upper 1 km. For this reason, it
cools slower than that quenched by water. As it cools, crystals have time to grow, but they
stay small due to the limited time for formation.
If I look closely at the rhyolite in the picture, I can see speckles that are different colors,
mostly black and white. These are tiny crystals!
c.
It cooled so quickly that no crystals formed (it is a glass).
d.
It cooled slowly and then quickly, so it is porphyritic (has small and large-sized crystals).
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Which of the following statements best describes a plutonic igneous rock?
Remember that rocks can consist of bits that aren't minerals... for example: teeth, bones, glass, coal, etc.
Select one:
a.
It cooled slowly, so it is coarse grained (has large-sized crystals).
b.
It cooled relatively quickly, so it is fine grained (has small-sized crystals).
c.
It cooled so quickly that no crystals formed (it is a glass).
d.
A and B
e.
B and C
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Carefully study the cross-section below after reading the Overview!
Below is a simplified example. It's a diagram that shows all the types of plate tectonic boundaries that can be found around the globe.
Geologists find that specific igneous rocks are associated with specific types of plate tectonic boundaries.
On the diagram below, the igneous rock found in the lithosphere when close to a divergent, convergent, or transform plate tectonic setting is
shown.
The igneous rock is labeled as either felsic, intermediate, or mafic igneous rock. For now, there's no need to focus on what these words mean.
We'll learn that later
...
Which of the following statements is NOT true according to this diagram?
Select one:
a.
Mafic oceanic crust is found at mid-oceanic ridges.
b.
Continents tend to be made of felsic or intermediate igneous rocks.
c.
Intermediate rocks on continents are usually found above subduction zones.
d.
If basalt is erupted on a continent, the lava came from deep in the earth, like from the mantle. e.
If felsic lava is erupted on a continent, the lava came from deep within the earth, like from the mantle.
Your answer is correct.
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Now a question about Geologic Time...
Which relative dating principle states that sedimentary layers lower in a sequence are older than the sedimentary layers on top of (or
overlying) them?
Be sure to read the Overview! and watch this week's video to learn this idea!
For additional guidance, if needed:
Earth's History: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z6k3NRy-YWs
Law of superposition: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EadTLGMu3LI
Original Horizontality: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mbQ8AIUJ7rg
Geologic Principles: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rc3da3-znK4
Select one:
a.
Principle of original horizontality
b.
Principle of cross-cutting relationships
c.
Principle of inclusions
d.
Principle of superposition
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The above figure shows how an body of magma (in A) can intrude upon pre-existing rocks and slowly cool to form a "pluton" of igneous plutonic
rock (in B).
How does contact metamorphism of buried sedimentary rocks (in the purple zones) occur during this process?
Select one:
a.
By hot water circulating through all the fissures and fractures.
b.
By high pressure conditions in a subduction zone.
c.
By heat from nearby magma called an igneous intrusion.
d.
By high temperatures and high pressures during burial.
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This figure shows that contact metamorphism of limestone is occurring where it is intruded by hot a magma body.
What common rock does contact metamorphism of limestone create?
Select one:
a.
quartzite
b.
schist
c.
marble
d.
gneiss
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Serpentinite is the state rock of California. Although serpentinite did not form here on the coast of California, it is widely abundant in the Bay Area.
Visit the following website to read about serpentinite. :-)
https://www.nps.gov/goga/learn/education/serpentinite-faq.htm
https://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/Pages/Publications/Note_14.aspx
What environment is NOT associated with formation of serpentinite?
Select one:
a.
circulation of thermal groundwater fluids
b.
black smokers
c.
mid-oceanic ridges
d.
continental collision zones
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Question 16
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Which type of rock is in this photo?
Look back at the table in the early part of the quiz for help! :-)
Select one:
a.
Igneous
b.
Clastic Sedimentary
c.
Metamorphic
d.
Biologic Sedimentary
e.
Chemical Sedimentary
Your answer is correct.
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Question 17
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Which type of igneous rock (plutonic or volcanic?) and texture (phaneritic, aphanitic, or porphyritic?) is shown in the photo?
The answer is in this week's Overview!
Select one:
a.
Volcanic and aphanitic, with fine crystals not visible to the naked eye
b.
Volcanic and porphyritic, with a mix of invisible and very big crystals visible to the naked eye
c.
Volcanic and phaneritic, with coarse crystals visible to the naked eye
d.
Plutonic and phaneritic, with coarse crystals visible to the naked eye
e.
Plutonic and aphanitic, with fine crystals not visible to the naked eye
Your answer is correct.
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Question 18
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Describe the igneous rock type and texture shown in the photo
Select one:
a.
Volcanic and aphanitic, with fine crystals not visible to the naked eye
b.
Volcanic and porphyritic, with fine and coarse crystals visible to the naked eye
c.
Volcanic and phaneritic, with coarse crystals visible to the naked eye
d.
Plutonic and aphanitic, with fine crystals not visible to the naked eye
e.
Plutonic and phaneritic, with coarse crystals visible to the naked eye
f.
Plutonic and porphyritic, with fine and coarse crystals visible to the naked eye
Your answer is correct.
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Question 19
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Describe the type of igneous rock rock and texture that you can see below in the photo.
Hint: this rock does have crystals!
Here is an example of the same rock, which cooled while bubbles were escaping! As a result, there are pockets of air frozen into it's surface.
These spaces due to bubbles of air are called vesicles. Igneous rocks with vesicles are used for exfoliating skin!
Select one:
a.
Volcanic and aphanitic, with fine crystals not visible to the naked eye
b.
Plutonic and porphyritic, with a mix of fine and very big crystals
c.
Volcanic and phaneritic, with coarse crystals visible to the naked eye
d.
Plutonic and aphanitic, with fine crystals not visible to the naked eye
e.
Plutonic and phaneritic, with coarse crystals visible to the naked eye
Your answer is correct.
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Question 20
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Do a little fun internet searching, and identify the type of rock forming in the photo of a Hawaiian lava flow below:
Select one:
a.
Basalt pahoehoe
b.
Basalt a’a
c.
Basalt lava
d.
Pele’s tears
e.
Basalt pumice
f.
Pele’s hair
Your answer is correct.
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Question 21
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Name the type of rock forming in the photo below.
Hint: it is formed by the lithification of sand and gravel deposited by the stream shown below.
Select one:
a.
Clastic sedimentary
b.
Igneous plutonic
c.
Metamorphic
d.
Igneous volcanic
e.
Chemical sedimentary
Your answer is correct.
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Question 22
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Name the type of rock forming on the flat desert playa in the photo below. Note: it consists of many crystals of the same mineral, which is
labeled in the close-up!
Hint: look up halite on the internet to see what it is!
Select one:
a.
Clastic sedimentary
b.
Metamorphic
c.
Igneous plutonic
d.
Igneous volcanic
e.
Chemical sedimentary
Your answer is correct.
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Question 23
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Climate change kills... The top 5 mass extinctions of life on planet earth were due to climate change involving severe volcanic eruptions and / or the
violent impact of asteroids with the earth's surface.
Which of these mass extinction corresponds with the end of life for the dinosaur population?
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https://cosmosmagazine.com/palaeontology/big-five-extinctions
Select one:
a.
Ordovician-silurian Extinction
b.
Devonian Extinction
c.
Permian-triassic Extinction
d.
Triassic-jurassic Extinction
e.
Cretaceous-tertiary Extinction
Your answer is correct.
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Question 24
Correct
Mark 1.00 out of 1.00
Which of the following statements is LEAST true...
The rock cycle describes:
Select one:
a.
How matter on the earth is created and destroyed.
b.
The journey of earth materials from the center of the earth to the earth's surface.
c.
The continual recycling of earth's materials.
d.
The fate of meteorites that land on earth's surface.
Your answer is correct.
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2023/6/5 23:58
Hazard Exploration #3—Rocks and Geologic Time: Attempt review
https://ilearn.sfsu.edu/ay2223/mod/quiz/review.php?attempt=424916&cmid=391455
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Question 25
Correct
Mark 1.00 out of 1.00
Choose the statement that best describes the Principle of Original Horizontality.
This principle is super helpful for thinking about the how the sediments within sedimentary rocks once accumulated on the earth's surface!
Please see the Overview and Men of Rock video for explanation!
Also available:
Original Horizontality: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mbQ8AIUJ7rg
For more on numerical and relative dating in general:
https://youtu.be/fYSeM63Fv0s
The
Permian
through
Jurassic
sedimentary rocks of the
Colorado Plateau
area of southeastern
Utah
provide a great example of Original
Horizontality. These layers make up much of the famous prominent rock formations in widely spaced protected areas such as
Capitol Reef
National Park
and
Canyonlands National Park
.
Select one:
a.
A principle of geology that states that layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally under the action of gravity
b.
A principle of geology that states that the geologic feature which cuts another is the younger of the two features
c.
A principle of geology that states that if inclusions (or clasts) are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the formation
that contains them
d.
A principle of geology that states that in a series of layered sedimentary rocks, the lowest stratum is the oldest
e.
A principle of geology that states that physical processes we observe operating today also operated in the past, at roughly comparable
rates... so the present is the key to the past
Rocks & Time Overview!
Jump to...
Students Speak Survey! :)
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2023/6/5 23:58
Hazard Exploration #3—Rocks and Geologic Time: Attempt review
https://ilearn.sfsu.edu/ay2223/mod/quiz/review.php?attempt=424916&cmid=391455
29/29
San Francisco State University
A California State University Campus
Academic Technology
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